Explanation​:
Before Social Cognitive Theory was developed, prior learning models and theories suggested that learning occurs when someone receives either positive reinforcement for a behavior, or negative consequences.

Answer choice C best describes exactly what Social Cognitive Theory explains.

Choices A and B are critiques of Social Cognitive Theory.
Choice D falls outside of the scope of what Social Cognitive Theory seeks to explain.

Explanation​:
Protective factors reduce acculturative stress. Sharing similar values with family members can promote greater support and unity within the household (choice A), and sufficient income also reduces stress (choice C).

Bilingualism is considered a protective factor as it widens the social support network available to individuals (choice B).

A strong preference for only speaking English predicts high acculturative stress, as language preferences may also reveal the extent to which individuals may want to limit their relationship with their primary culture. The lowest levels of acculturative stress tend to occur for individuals who integrate, i.e., those who maintain positive relationships with both cultures.

Explanation​:

Chen found that participants primed with stimuli related to the American culture, were more likely to pay extra for the immediate shipping, while those primed with Singaporean culture were more likely to opt for the free shipping. Thus meaning, B is the correct statement.

The missing strategy is assimilation, which involves creating a positive relationship with the new culture, but failing to maintain a connection with the original culture.

Explanation​:
Ecological fallacies are made when we take data gathered on a group and assume that each individual must embody those traits equally (choice A). For example, we would be committing an ecological fallacy if we assume that because someone is American, they must be highly individualistic.

While stereotypes do assume groups are homogenous and generalize traits, stereotypes do not need to be based on any empirical data at all (choice C)

Choice B explains population validity, and choice D explains ecological validity.

Explanation​:

The idea that people only learn through reinforcement is not an assumption of the sociocultural approach.

Options A, B and C represent the assumptions of the sociocultural approach.

Explanation​:
Answer choice A involves long-term orientation, a cultural dimension. This answer relates a feature of culture to its effect on behavior and outlines the findings of Chen et al. (2005).

Choice B mentions an in-group, which is not synonymous with a cultural group. This outlines the findings of Abrams et al. (1990), a study on Social Identity Theory.

Choice C outlines how confirmation bias is related to the effect of stereotypes.

Choice D outlines one finding of Bandura (1961) and does not present an effect of culture on behavior.

Explanation​:
Choice A outlines acculturation, and choice B outlines Social Cognitive Theory. Enculturation is not a model itself, and it is not accurate to suggest that the end result is $\text{‘}$similarity$\text{’}$ to parents. This leaves choice B, which does accurately outline enculturation.

Explanation​:

The idea that people only learn through reinforcement is not an assumption of the sociocultural approach.

Options A, B and C represent the assumptions of the sociocultural approach.

Explanation​:

When people can/do unconsciously change their behaviour, causing the schema to become true, it is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

A & B are ways in which stereotypes are formed in people. In contrast, D is an effect of stereotypes.

Explanation​:

In Social Cognitive Theory, the reproduction of a task is primarily affected by self-efficacy. The accurate reproduction of a task is dependent on high/low self-efficacy in an individual.

There are four primary sources of self-efficacy which are the following: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and emotional & physical states.

Explanation​:

The OCEAN model stands for openness, conscientiousness - extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

The model was developed by MCrae and John in 1992 with a purpose to measure and compare personalities.

Explanation​:

The gatekeeper theory is a psychology and communication theory related to who controls access to information and ideas in a social group. It is a group of people who decide/control what information has to be shared with the people.

Option A explains comparative studies, option B focuses on cultural transmission, and option C defines culture.

Explanation​:
Choices A, C, and D each describe social groups usually created through social structures and systems. In some cases, membership in social groups is voluntary.

Choice B is the only option that describes a cultural group in which membership is often tied to geography, direct genealogy, and/or long-term participation in cultural customs and norms.

Explanation​:
Vicarious reinforcement describes the ability to learn from observing the outcomes of others' behaviors - not just our own. In other words, if we see a behavior receive positive feedback or praise, we are more likely to imitate that behavior. If we watch someone receive a negative consequence or punishment for a behavior, we are less likely to imitate that behavior.

Option D is the only answer choice that demonstrates:

• A modeled behavior.
• A positive or negative consequence.
• A similar behavior demonstrated by the observer.

Option A does not reflect an applied good or bad consequence experienced by the teacher.

Options B and C describe direct reinforcement: the employee and the toddler received the consequences themselves.

Explanation​:
Choice A mentions a primary culture; acculturation only describes adapting to a secondary or tertiary culture.

Acculturative stress can occur with all four of Berry’s acculturation strategies, even integration – though integration is indeed associated with lower acculturative stress. This means we can eliminate choice C.

Choice D mentions gaining protective factors, which reduce acculturative stress.

Explanation​:

Hofstede conducted his research by mailing an extensive survey about workplace values to 117,000 IBM employees in 50 countries. Hofstede carried out his research using a questionnaire called the Values Survey Module. From the results, he created his cultural dimensions, which reflect the national cultural characteristics of a country.

Explanation​:
An individual within a cultural group may not consistently follow cultural norms for various reasons. These could be environmentally driven – that is, an individual behaves differently in a workplace with a different dominant culture compared to when they are home. In addition, if an individual is experiencing acculturation, their values may begin to encompass those of the new culture. Neither of these situations inherently means an individual no longer belongs to their cultural group.

Explanation​:
Enculturation takes place whether or not caregivers or parents being enculturated are explicitly aware of exactly what they are enculturating. For example, in Fagot (1978), parents believed that they were demonstrating gender-neutral behaviors with children during play, but researchers observed that there were differences in what behaviors were praised and discouraged according to the child’s gender.

Enculturation describes acquiring the norms and values of a first or primary culture (answer choices B and C). Acculturation is the term that describes adapting to additional, new cultural environments.

Enculturation can occur through models in media, or through direct instruction in settings like school. This means answer choice D also describes enculturation.

Explanation​:
Arousal refers to the state of being physiologically alert or aware. Arousal is a biological factor that may play a role in the other cognitive factors listed – such as attention. However, it is not a cognitive factor on its own.

A, C, and D are cognitive factors that increase the likelihood that someone will learn from a model.

Explanation​:
The concept of culture involves norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs that are common (answer choice A). This is called deep culture, which one could only infer after observing surface culture behaviors (answer choice D).

Answer choice B and C contradict each other. Nearly all definitions of culture describe the ability of cultures to change in response to environmental shifts, such as globalization. This means answer choice C is the only option that does not accurately describe culture.

Explanation​:

The process of studying cultures from an outside perspective looking in is known as the etic approach. A process in which cultural practices and beliefs are outside the culture.

It is the opposite of the emic approach, which focuses on understanding the culture from within/being a part of the culture closely.

Explanation​:
Stereotypes are often characterized as negative, but they can be positive as well. While stereotypes can be passed down within groups as a part of adopting the norms of that group, they are not considered values. Instead, stereotypes are better thought of as beliefs.