Explanation:
Before Social Cognitive Theory was developed, prior learning models and theories suggested that learning occurs when someone receives either positive reinforcement for a behavior, or negative consequences.

Answer choice C best describes exactly what Social Cognitive Theory explains.

Choices A and B are critiques of Social Cognitive Theory.
Choice D falls outside of the scope of what Social Cognitive Theory seeks to explain.

Explanation:

The gatekeeper theory is a psychology and communication theory related to who controls access to information and ideas in a social group. It is a group of people who decide/control what information has to be shared with the people.

Option A explains comparative studies, option B focuses on cultural transmission, and option C defines culture.

Explanation:

In Social Cognitive Theory, the reproduction of a task is primarily affected by self-efficacy. The accurate reproduction of a task is dependent on high/low self-efficacy in an individual.

There are four primary sources of self-efficacy which are the following: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and emotional & physical states.

Explanation:
Answer choice D is correct. Social Identity Theory focuses on how individuals derive identities and self-esteem from the groups they belong to. It does not attempt to describe personal identity formation (option B) or inter- or intra-group dynamics (option C).

Answer choice A describes Social Cognitive Theory.

Explanation:

Hofstede conducted his research by mailing an extensive survey about workplace values to 117,000 IBM employees in 50 countries. Hofstede carried out his research using a questionnaire called the Values Survey Module. From the results, he created his cultural dimensions, which reflect the national cultural characteristics of a country.

Explanation:

Vertical collectivism is when group members merge with the ingroup and submit to an authority in that ingroup.

Option A focuses on social identity theory, C is horizontal individualism and D is horizontal collectivism.

Explanation:
Answer choice D references the minimal group paradigm created by Henri Tajfel, who created Social Identity Theory. In one of his famous studies, Tajfel (1970), two groups of boys were told that they ended up in the same group because they all liked the same artwork, when in reality, they were randomly allocated to each group. Although this shared identity was actually based on an arbitrary (random) assigned trait, the boys could still derive social identities and self-esteem from belonging to that group.

Explanation:

When people can/do unconsciously change their behaviour, causing the schema to become true, it is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

A & B are ways in which stereotypes are formed in people. In contrast, D is an effect of stereotypes.

Explanation:
The concept of culture involves norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs that are common (answer choice A). This is called deep culture, which one could only infer after observing surface culture behaviors (answer choice D).

Answer choice B and C contradict each other. Nearly all definitions of culture describe the ability of cultures to change in response to environmental shifts, such as globalization. This means answer choice C is the only option that does not accurately describe culture.

Explanation:

Power distance is the extent to which people accept unequal distributions of power. In a high power distance culture, the boss makes all the important decisions, and employees accept the total authority of their superiors. In a low power distance culture, decisions are made more collaboratively, and all employees expect some say in how things are done.

Masculinity describes the importance given to achievement and striving for success.

Explanation:
Enculturation takes place whether or not caregivers or parents being enculturated are explicitly aware of exactly what they are enculturating. For example, in Fagot (1978), parents believed that they were demonstrating gender-neutral behaviors with children during play, but researchers observed that there were differences in what behaviors were praised and discouraged according to the child’s gender.

Enculturation describes acquiring the norms and values of a first or primary culture (answer choices B and C). Acculturation is the term that describes adapting to additional, new cultural environments.

Enculturation can occur through models in media, or through direct instruction in settings like school. This means answer choice D also describes enculturation.

Explanation:
Stereotypes are often characterized as negative, but they can be positive as well. While stereotypes can be passed down within groups as a part of adopting the norms of that group, they are not considered values. Instead, stereotypes are better thought of as beliefs.

Explanation:
Choice A outlines acculturation, and choice B outlines Social Cognitive Theory. Enculturation is not a model itself, and it is not accurate to suggest that the end result is $\text{‘}$similarity$\text{’}$ to parents. This leaves choice B, which does accurately outline enculturation.

Explanation:

The negative acculturation effect refers to the diminishing difference between migrants and their native-born counterparts over time. It is the opposite of the healthy migrant effect (C), which suggests that recent migrants tend to be healthier than their native-born counterparts.

Option A represents separation, and B is for marginalisation.

Explanation:
An individual within a cultural group may not consistently follow cultural norms for various reasons. These could be environmentally driven – that is, an individual behaves differently in a workplace with a different dominant culture compared to when they are home. In addition, if an individual is experiencing acculturation, their values may begin to encompass those of the new culture. Neither of these situations inherently means an individual no longer belongs to their cultural group.

The missing strategy is assimilation, which involves creating a positive relationship with the new culture, but failing to maintain a connection with the original culture.

Explanation:

The idea that people only learn through reinforcement is not an assumption of the sociocultural approach.

Options A, B and C represent the assumptions of the sociocultural approach.

Explanation:

When people can/do unconsciously change their behaviour, causing the schema to become true, it is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

A & B are ways in which stereotypes are formed in people. In contrast, D is an effect of stereotypes.

Explanation:
Ecological fallacies are made when we take data gathered on a group and assume that each individual must embody those traits equally (choice A). For example, we would be committing an ecological fallacy if we assume that because someone is American, they must be highly individualistic.

While stereotypes do assume groups are homogenous and generalize traits, stereotypes do not need to be based on any empirical data at all (choice C)

Choice B explains population validity, and choice D explains ecological validity.

Explanation:
Choice A explains assimilation accurately, as defined in Berry's Acculturation Model.

Choices B, C, and D explain separation, marginalization, and integration, respectively.

Explanation:
Arousal refers to the state of being physiologically alert or aware. Arousal is a biological factor that may play a role in the other cognitive factors listed – such as attention. However, it is not a cognitive factor on its own.

A, C, and D are cognitive factors that increase the likelihood that someone will learn from a model.

Explanation:

The process of studying cultures from an outside perspective looking in is known as the etic approach. A process in which cultural practices and beliefs are outside the culture.

It is the opposite of the emic approach, which focuses on understanding the culture from within/being a part of the culture closely.

Explanation:
Choices A, C, and D each describe social groups usually created through social structures and systems. In some cases, membership in social groups is voluntary.

Choice B is the only option that describes a cultural group in which membership is often tied to geography, direct genealogy, and/or long-term participation in cultural customs and norms.