Explanation:
Choice C is the correct option. It is believed that if memory encoding is constructive, then logically, memory recall must be reconstructive.

It is not a passive process automatically recording events but an active process influeced by existing beliefs and schemas.

Therefore, options A, B, and D are not accurate.

Elizabeth Loftus and other scholars have extensively researched and documented the reconstructive quality of memory.

Explanation:

When processing a stimuli, Le Doux hypothesised that humans go through a sequence of stages in either of the two pathways - slow pathway and fast pathway, depending on the severity of the issue presented.

All other options are not linked to the hypothesis of Le Doux’s theory of the emotional brain.

Explanation:

A flashbulb memory is a vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often accompanied by a strong sense of clarity and accuracy. It is also called a snapshot of a particular moment/memory.

Explanation:

The statement ‘behaviour is the product of physiology’ is not a principle of cognitive approach. It is a principle of the biological approach.

Options A, B and C are all principles of the cognitive approach.

Explanation:
Controlled thinking, associated with System 2, involves effortful and consciously monitored cognitive processes, such as making decisions in uncertain situations.

Explanation:
Cognitive schemas are mental structures or frameworks of knowledge and beliefs that help organise and interpret incoming information from the environment. These schemas are not innate or genetically determined (Choice A) but are acquired through experiences and learning. They are not automatic and unconscious mental processes (Choice B) but conscious cognitive frameworks that guide our thinking and perception of the world.

Choice C correctly describes cognitive schemas as frameworks that organise and interpret information. These schemas influence how we perceive, process, and remember information, shaping our expectations, judgments, and interpretations of new experiences.

Choice D is incorrect because cognitive schemas are not strategies for improving memory and problem-solving skills. While cognitive strategies can enhance cognitive processes, cognitive schemas refer to mental structures rather than specific methods or techniques to improve cognitive functioning.

Explanation:
The Dual Process Model distinguishes between automatic and controlled thinking styles, known as intuitive and rational thinking. The ideas of rational and intuitive thinking were developed by Daniel Kahneman, along with his research partner Amos Tversky (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).

They explored the distinction between these two modes of thinking and their implications for decision-making and judgment under uncertainty. Their groundbreaking work laid the foundation for understanding the cognitive processes involved in rational and intuitive thinking.

Explanation:
According to Piaget's schema theory, accommodation involves modifying existing cognitive structures or schemas to accommodate new information that does not fit existing frameworks. Choice B accurately represents this process. When a child observes a ball falling at different speeds, it challenges their previous understanding of gravity. To make sense of this new information, the child modifies or adjusts their schema of gravity to accurately incorporate the observation.
Choice A describes the process of assimilation, where the child applies existing knowledge (dogs) to categorize a horse, albeit inaccurately.
Choice C represents assimilation rather than accommodation since the child incorporates new information (birds) into an existing schema (flying animals) without significantly modifying the schema.
Choice D does not relate to the process of accommodation but is more focused on repetition or rehearsal.

Explanation:
A, B, and D are incorrect because working memory is essentially a specific version of short-term memory.

Explanation:
Compared to the other choices, semantic memory, which holds general knowledge and concepts, tends to be more stable and resistant to decay compared to episodic memory, which can fade with time. Procedural memory involves skills, and implicit memory is often influenced by context and priming.

Explanation:

According to Beck’s cognitive model of depression (1987), self-schemas are linked to automatic thinking patterns. The negative/positive self-schemas that people believe result in developing automatic thinking patterns.

The other choices are not associated with Beck’s model of depression.

Explanation:
A, B, and D are common criticisms of the schema theory, except for C. Schemas often guide our understanding and interpretation of emotions. Schemas also influence how we perceive, process, and respond to emotional stimuli and events.

Schema theory also effectively explains emotions by highlighting how specific schemas can elicit the same emotions experienced during their formation. For instance, an individual who got into a physical accident (e.g. falling down the stairs) may feel fear every time they see or use the stairs due to the activation of their schema of the experience.

Explanation:
Choice D is correct. The research of Brown & Kulik (1977) focused on testing whether dramatic and personally-significant events may lead to flashbulb memories. To do this, they administered surveys gathering self-reports of the participants' recollections of the events which may be a methodological problem since no controls were accounted for verification of the self-reported memories.

Explanation:
Choice B is the accurate response because Tversky and Kahneman focused on the limits of rational thinking. Their investigation of intuitive judgments eventually led to identifying different cognitive biases explaining why people may not always make rational decisions.

Tversky and Kahneman focused on something other than working memory, their findings' links to behavioural economics were accidental, and the dual-process model of thinking and decision-making was initially credited to Stanovich and West (2000).

Explanation:

Stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol released after an event activates the amygdala often linked to the formation of flashbulb memories.

Choices B, C and A are hormones but are not related to the amygdala.

Explanation:
Schemas play a significant role in decision-making processes. They help individuals quickly process information and make judgments based on their pre-existing knowledge and expectations.

The other choices are not directly linked to schemas.

Explanation:
The correct answer is C. Sensory memory usually lasts a fraction of a second. If we ignore a piece of sensory information, we will not notice it; therefore, we will not be able to remember it. When we pay attention to specific environmental stimuli, they are processed by our sensory memory and transferred to our short-term memory. Attention is essential in the transfer of information from sensory memory to short-term memory. Once information is in our short-term memory, we can rehearse and store it in our long-term memory for future retrieval.

Explanation:
Encoding is the initial process of learning and perceiving external stimuli and information. The other choices refer to the other stages of the memory processes following encoding.

Explanation:
Dual-task techniques involve assigning participants two concurrent tasks that require using different components of working memory. The primary purpose of dual-task techniques is to examine the division of attention and the limitations of working memory. Researchers can observe how well individuals can allocate their attention and resources across multiple tasks by presenting participants with two tasks simultaneously. This helps in understanding the capacity and processing constraints of working memory.

Explanation:
Choices B, C, and D are not limitations of the MSMM (multi-store memory model).

Many studies, such as Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) & Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), have supported MSMM. Applications of the model have been studied and replicated since the model is not complicated and is applicable in many situations. However, due to the experimental and artificial nature of the research on MSMM, it is often criticised for its lack of ecological validity and limited elaboration of the complexities of memory, thus making Choice A the correct answer.

$\text{Atkinson, R. C., \& Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes.}$
$\text{In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 89-195). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3}$

$\text{Glanzer, M., \& Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall.}$ $\text{Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5(4), 351-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5371(66)80044-0}$

Explanation:
System 2 thinking involves deliberate, analytical, and effortful mental processes that are slower and more conscious than the quick, automatic, and effortless processes of System 1 thinking. It requires concentration and mental energy to engage in System 2 thinking, which is often used for problem-solving, decision-making, and critical thinking.

Explanation:

Loftus and Palmer’s study supported the notion of reconstructive memory. They found that the participants showed response bias and memory change.

Response bias is an estimation of a higher intensity verb for higher speed (a participant assuming the speed is 70km/hr for the word smashed versus 30km/hr speed for the verb contacted).

Memory change is caused by the leading questions in the study (e.g. when the participant hears the verb smashed, the accident is seen as more severe compared to when the verb contacted is used).

Explanation:
System 1 thinking, also known as intuitive thinking, is fast, automatic, effortless, associative, implicit, and emotionally charged. For example, automatically swerving to avoid an obstacle while driving.

Explanation:

The utility theory is not a strategy for the adaptive decision-maker framework by Payne, Bettman and Johnson (1993). Utility theory is a part of the normative model of decision-making where uncertainty and trade-offs between alternatives are present.

Options B, C and D are strategies for the adaptive decision-maker framework.

Explanation:
According to Schachter and Singer's two-factor theory of emotion, the physical sensations of arousal are cognitively interpreted or appraised based on the surrounding circumstances. We attempt to assign a suitable emotion to the arousal by giving it a label that makes sense.