Explanation​:

The dual-processing model is a cognitive model which explains system 1 and system 2 thinking.

Option B and C are theories from the sociocultural approach, and option D is from the biological approach.

Explanation​:
The availability heuristic can be influenced by various factors, including exposure to advertising, news, media, and family upbringing. If someone has experienced a particular event firsthand, they may overestimate the chances of it happening again. Similarly, if certain events receive a lot of media coverage, they may seem more significant and thus be seen as more likely to occur. Finally, information that is easy to recall may be given more weight in decision-making, even if it is not necessarily the most accurate or representative information.

Explanation​:
Loftus' (1997) study found that a significant portion of the participants, recalled a false memory of being lost in a shopping mall as if it was an actual experience. This was done by implanting false memories of being lost in the mall by means of suggestion and confabulation, through the interviews done with the participants.

Explanation​:

The utility theory is not a strategy for the adaptive decision-maker framework by Payne, Bettman and Johnson (1993). Utility theory is a part of the normative model of decision-making where uncertainty and trade-offs between alternatives are present.

Options B, C and D are strategies for the adaptive decision-maker framework.

Explanation​:
The phonological loop is responsible for holding and manipulating auditory information. It is divided into two subcomponents - the phonological store, which stores auditory information, and the articulatory loop, which allows for the rehearsal and manipulation of this information. The central executive coordinates and integrates information from the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, while the sensory register briefly stores sensory information from the environment. The visuospatial sketchpad is responsible for holding and manipulating visual and spatial information. The sensory register is not a component of this model.

Explanation​:
Choice C is the correct option. It is believed that if memory encoding is constructive, then logically, memory recall must be reconstructive.

It is not a passive process automatically recording events but an active process influeced by existing beliefs and schemas.

Therefore, options A, B, and D are not accurate.

Elizabeth Loftus and other scholars have extensively researched and documented the reconstructive quality of memory.

Explanation​:
The Dual Process Model distinguishes between automatic and controlled thinking styles, known as intuitive and rational thinking. The ideas of rational and intuitive thinking were developed by Daniel Kahneman, along with his research partner Amos Tversky (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).

They explored the distinction between these two modes of thinking and their implications for decision-making and judgment under uncertainty. Their groundbreaking work laid the foundation for understanding the cognitive processes involved in rational and intuitive thinking.

Explanation​:
Anchoring bias occurs when an individual relies too heavily on the first piece of information they receive when making a decision. In this case, the seller's initial asking price serves as an anchor point, which can influence the individual's estimate of the watch's value. This can lead to the individual paying more than the actual value of the watch or missing out on a good deal if the initial asking price is too high.

Explanation​:

Most of the studies on eyewitness testimony are conducted in naturalistic settings where lack of internal validity becomes a main limitation. Since these studies take place in a natural environment resulting in high ecological validity, there is also the effect of extraneous/confounding variables which cannot be controlled in a natural environment. Hence, there cannot be a cause-and-effect relationship leading to a lack of internal validity.

Explanation​:
The availability heuristic can be influenced by various factors, including exposure to advertising, news, media, and family upbringing. If someone has experienced a particular event firsthand, they may overestimate the chances of it happening again. Similarly, if certain events receive a lot of media coverage, they may seem more significant and thus be seen as more likely to occur. Finally, information that is easy to recall may be given more weight in decision-making, even if it is not necessarily the most accurate or representative information.

Explanation​:
The amygdala is responsible for directing automatic or unconscious responses to emotional stimuli. It also plays a crucial role in linking sensory inputs with long-term memory in the cerebral cortex.

Additionally, the amygdala, together with the hippocampus, are both involved in emotion and cognition as they are central to processing emotion in relation to cognitive processes such as memory.

Explanation​:
Choice D is correct. The research of Brown & Kulik (1977) focused on testing whether dramatic and personally-significant events may lead to flashbulb memories. To do this, they administered surveys gathering self-reports of the participants' recollections of the events which may be a methodological problem since no controls were accounted for verification of the self-reported memories.

Explanation​:

The notion of cognitive biases was introduced by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972.

Cognitive biases are systematic deviations from rational thinking/clear judgments. Heuristics lead to cognitive biases.

Explanation​:

Stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol released after an event activates the amygdala often linked to the formation of flashbulb memories.

Choices B, C and A are hormones but are not related to the amygdala.

Explanation​:

According to Beck’s cognitive model of depression (1987), self-schemas are linked to automatic thinking patterns. The negative/positive self-schemas that people believe result in developing automatic thinking patterns.

The other choices are not associated with Beck’s model of depression.

Explanation​:
Encoding is the initial process of learning and perceiving external stimuli and information. The other choices refer to the other stages of the memory processes following encoding.

Explanation​:
Controlled thinking, associated with System 2, involves effortful and consciously monitored cognitive processes, such as making decisions in uncertain situations.

Explanation​:

A flashbulb memory is a vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often accompanied by a strong sense of clarity and accuracy. It is also called a snapshot of a particular moment/memory.

Explanation​:
The correct answer is C. Sensory memory usually lasts a fraction of a second. If we ignore a piece of sensory information, we will not notice it; therefore, we will not be able to remember it. When we pay attention to specific environmental stimuli, they are processed by our sensory memory and transferred to our short-term memory. Attention is essential in the transfer of information from sensory memory to short-term memory. Once information is in our short-term memory, we can rehearse and store it in our long-term memory for future retrieval.

Explanation​:

When processing a stimuli, Le Doux hypothesised that humans go through a sequence of stages in either of the two pathways - slow pathway and fast pathway, depending on the severity of the issue presented.

All other options are not linked to the hypothesis of Le Doux’s theory of the emotional brain.

Explanation​:

Loftus and Palmer’s study supported the notion of reconstructive memory. They found that the participants showed response bias and memory change.

Response bias is an estimation of a higher intensity verb for higher speed (a participant assuming the speed is 70km/hr for the word smashed versus 30km/hr speed for the verb contacted).

Memory change is caused by the leading questions in the study (e.g. when the participant hears the verb smashed, the accident is seen as more severe compared to when the verb contacted is used).

Explanation​:
A, B, and D are incorrect because working memory is essentially a specific version of short-term memory.

Explanation​:
Controlled thinking, associated with System 2, involves effortful and consciously monitored cognitive processes, such as making decisions in uncertain situations.

Explanation​:

Flashbulb memories are defined as extremely vivid, detailed recollections of a surprising and emotional event. The event must exceed the critical level of surprise to be categorised as a flashbulb memory. There is also a level of personal significance that one attaches to the event.

Explanation​:

Choice A can be considered the correct answer as there is evidence from research that emotionally arousing events lead to the activation of the amygdala, which helps in better memory of the event.

Choices B, C and D do not outline the amygdala’s role in processing flashbulb memories.