Explanation​:
Encoding is the initial process of learning and perceiving external stimuli and information. The other choices refer to the other stages of the memory processes following encoding.

Explanation​:
The misinformation effect is when a person's memory of an event is influenced by misleading information provided after the event. Loftus and Palmer's (1974) research demonstrated that leading questions containing false information could distort participants' memory of a car accident. This effect highlights the malleability and reconstructive nature of memory.

Explanation​:
Choices B, C, and D are not limitations of the MSMM (multi-store memory model).

Many studies, such as Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) & Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), have supported MSMM. Applications of the model have been studied and replicated since the model is not complicated and is applicable in many situations. However, due to the experimental and artificial nature of the research on MSMM, it is often criticised for its lack of ecological validity and limited elaboration of the complexities of memory, thus making Choice A the correct answer.

$\text{Atkinson, R. C., \& Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes.}$
$\text{In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 89-195). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3}$

$\text{Glanzer, M., \& Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall.}$ $\text{Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5(4), 351-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5371(66)80044-0}$

Explanation​:
Schemas play a significant role in decision-making processes. They help individuals quickly process information and make judgments based on their pre-existing knowledge and expectations.

The other choices are not directly linked to schemas.

Explanation​:

Flashbulb memories are defined as extremely vivid, detailed recollections of a surprising and emotional event. The event must exceed the critical level of surprise to be categorised as a flashbulb memory. There is also a level of personal significance that one attaches to the event.

Explanation​:

Choice A can be considered the correct answer as there is evidence from research that emotionally arousing events lead to the activation of the amygdala, which helps in better memory of the event.

Choices B, C and D do not outline the amygdala’s role in processing flashbulb memories.

Explanation​:
According to Kahneman (2003), intuitive thinking involves judgments that directly reflect impressions and are not modified by conscious monitoring. It is characterized by fast, automatic, and emotionally charged cognitive processes. This type of thinking is associated with System 1 in the two-system view of thinking.

Explanation​:
System 2 thinking involves deliberate, analytical, and effortful mental processes that are slower and more conscious than the quick, automatic, and effortless processes of System 1 thinking. It requires concentration and mental energy to engage in System 2 thinking, which is often used for problem-solving, decision-making, and critical thinking.

Explanation​:
B is the correct answer. According to the multi-store model, short-term memory has a limited capacity, typically estimated at about 7 ± 2 items (Miller's law).

It is not considered unlimited (A), varies individually (C), or unidentifiable (D).

Explanation​:
Choice C is the correct option. It is believed that if memory encoding is constructive, then logically, memory recall must be reconstructive.

It is not a passive process automatically recording events but an active process influeced by existing beliefs and schemas.

Therefore, options A, B, and D are not accurate.

Elizabeth Loftus and other scholars have extensively researched and documented the reconstructive quality of memory.

Explanation​:
Controlled thinking, associated with System 2, involves effortful and consciously monitored cognitive processes, such as making decisions in uncertain situations.

Explanation​:

According to Beck’s cognitive model of depression (1987), self-schemas are linked to automatic thinking patterns. The negative/positive self-schemas that people believe result in developing automatic thinking patterns.

The other choices are not associated with Beck’s model of depression.

Explanation​:
Dual-task techniques involve assigning participants two concurrent tasks that require using different components of working memory. The primary purpose of dual-task techniques is to examine the division of attention and the limitations of working memory. Researchers can observe how well individuals can allocate their attention and resources across multiple tasks by presenting participants with two tasks simultaneously. This helps in understanding the capacity and processing constraints of working memory.

Explanation​:
Anchoring bias occurs when an individual relies too heavily on the first piece of information they receive when making a decision. In this case, the seller's initial asking price serves as an anchor point, which can influence the individual's estimate of the watch's value. This can lead to the individual paying more than the actual value of the watch or missing out on a good deal if the initial asking price is too high.

Explanation​:
The amygdala is responsible for directing automatic or unconscious responses to emotional stimuli. It also plays a crucial role in linking sensory inputs with long-term memory in the cerebral cortex.

Additionally, the amygdala, together with the hippocampus, are both involved in emotion and cognition as they are central to processing emotion in relation to cognitive processes such as memory.

Explanation​:
Compared to the other choices, semantic memory, which holds general knowledge and concepts, tends to be more stable and resistant to decay compared to episodic memory, which can fade with time. Procedural memory involves skills, and implicit memory is often influenced by context and priming.

Explanation​:

A flashbulb memory is a vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often accompanied by a strong sense of clarity and accuracy. It is also called a snapshot of a particular moment/memory.

Explanation​:

When processing a stimuli, Le Doux hypothesised that humans go through a sequence of stages in either of the two pathways - slow pathway and fast pathway, depending on the severity of the issue presented.

All other options are not linked to the hypothesis of Le Doux’s theory of the emotional brain.

Explanation​:

Most of the studies on eyewitness testimony are conducted in naturalistic settings where lack of internal validity becomes a main limitation. Since these studies take place in a natural environment resulting in high ecological validity, there is also the effect of extraneous/confounding variables which cannot be controlled in a natural environment. Hence, there cannot be a cause-and-effect relationship leading to a lack of internal validity.

Explanation​:

The notion of cognitive biases was introduced by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972.

Cognitive biases are systematic deviations from rational thinking/clear judgments. Heuristics lead to cognitive biases.

Explanation​:
The availability heuristic can be influenced by various factors, including exposure to advertising, news, media, and family upbringing. If someone has experienced a particular event firsthand, they may overestimate the chances of it happening again. Similarly, if certain events receive a lot of media coverage, they may seem more significant and thus be seen as more likely to occur. Finally, information that is easy to recall may be given more weight in decision-making, even if it is not necessarily the most accurate or representative information.

Explanation​:
Cognitive schemas are mental structures or frameworks of knowledge and beliefs that help organise and interpret incoming information from the environment. These schemas are not innate or genetically determined (Choice A) but are acquired through experiences and learning. They are not automatic and unconscious mental processes (Choice B) but conscious cognitive frameworks that guide our thinking and perception of the world.

Choice C correctly describes cognitive schemas as frameworks that organise and interpret information. These schemas influence how we perceive, process, and remember information, shaping our expectations, judgments, and interpretations of new experiences.

Choice D is incorrect because cognitive schemas are not strategies for improving memory and problem-solving skills. While cognitive strategies can enhance cognitive processes, cognitive schemas refer to mental structures rather than specific methods or techniques to improve cognitive functioning.

Explanation​:

Stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol released after an event activates the amygdala often linked to the formation of flashbulb memories.

Choices B, C and A are hormones but are not related to the amygdala.

Explanation​:
The Dual Process Model distinguishes between automatic and controlled thinking styles, known as intuitive and rational thinking. The ideas of rational and intuitive thinking were developed by Daniel Kahneman, along with his research partner Amos Tversky (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).

They explored the distinction between these two modes of thinking and their implications for decision-making and judgment under uncertainty. Their groundbreaking work laid the foundation for understanding the cognitive processes involved in rational and intuitive thinking.

Explanation​:

Loftus and Palmer’s study supported the notion of reconstructive memory. They found that the participants showed response bias and memory change.

Response bias is an estimation of a higher intensity verb for higher speed (a participant assuming the speed is 70km/hr for the word smashed versus 30km/hr speed for the verb contacted).

Memory change is caused by the leading questions in the study (e.g. when the participant hears the verb smashed, the accident is seen as more severe compared to when the verb contacted is used).