Explanation:

Flashbulb memories are defined as extremely vivid, detailed recollections of a surprising and emotional event. The event must exceed the critical level of surprise to be categorised as a flashbulb memory. There is also a level of personal significance that one attaches to the event.

Explanation:
Loftus' (1997) study found that a significant portion of the participants, recalled a false memory of being lost in a shopping mall as if it was an actual experience. This was done by implanting false memories of being lost in the mall by means of suggestion and confabulation, through the interviews done with the participants.

Explanation:

A flashbulb memory is a vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often accompanied by a strong sense of clarity and accuracy. It is also called a snapshot of a particular moment/memory.

Explanation:

The dual-processing model is a cognitive model which explains system 1 and system 2 thinking.

Option B and C are theories from the sociocultural approach, and option D is from the biological approach.

Explanation:
System 2 thinking involves deliberate, analytical, and effortful mental processes that are slower and more conscious than the quick, automatic, and effortless processes of System 1 thinking. It requires concentration and mental energy to engage in System 2 thinking, which is often used for problem-solving, decision-making, and critical thinking.

Explanation:

Levels of processing was introduced by Craik & Lockhart (1972) and was used as a critique to the multi-store memory model (MSMM).

In this model (levels of processing), recall depends on the depth of processing. The researchers argued that all information passes through levels of processing (shallow and deep). Information that is processed deeply is remembered better compared to shallow processing information.

Explanation:
The amygdala is responsible for directing automatic or unconscious responses to emotional stimuli. It also plays a crucial role in linking sensory inputs with long-term memory in the cerebral cortex.

Additionally, the amygdala, together with the hippocampus, are both involved in emotion and cognition as they are central to processing emotion in relation to cognitive processes such as memory.

Explanation:

Stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol released after an event activates the amygdala often linked to the formation of flashbulb memories.

Choices B, C and A are hormones but are not related to the amygdala.

Explanation:
A, B, and D are common criticisms of the schema theory, except for C. Schemas often guide our understanding and interpretation of emotions. Schemas also influence how we perceive, process, and respond to emotional stimuli and events.

Schema theory also effectively explains emotions by highlighting how specific schemas can elicit the same emotions experienced during their formation. For instance, an individual who got into a physical accident (e.g. falling down the stairs) may feel fear every time they see or use the stairs due to the activation of their schema of the experience.

Explanation:
The correct answer is C. Sensory memory usually lasts a fraction of a second. If we ignore a piece of sensory information, we will not notice it; therefore, we will not be able to remember it. When we pay attention to specific environmental stimuli, they are processed by our sensory memory and transferred to our short-term memory. Attention is essential in the transfer of information from sensory memory to short-term memory. Once information is in our short-term memory, we can rehearse and store it in our long-term memory for future retrieval.

Explanation:
Choices B, C, and D are not limitations of the MSMM (multi-store memory model).

Many studies, such as Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) & Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), have supported MSMM. Applications of the model have been studied and replicated since the model is not complicated and is applicable in many situations. However, due to the experimental and artificial nature of the research on MSMM, it is often criticised for its lack of ecological validity and limited elaboration of the complexities of memory, thus making Choice A the correct answer.

$\text{Atkinson, R. C., \& Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes.}$
$\text{In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 89-195). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3}$

$\text{Glanzer, M., \& Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall.}$ $\text{Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5(4), 351-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5371(66)80044-0}$

Explanation:

Most of the studies on eyewitness testimony are conducted in naturalistic settings where lack of internal validity becomes a main limitation. Since these studies take place in a natural environment resulting in high ecological validity, there is also the effect of extraneous/confounding variables which cannot be controlled in a natural environment. Hence, there cannot be a cause-and-effect relationship leading to a lack of internal validity.

Explanation:

The utility theory is not a strategy for the adaptive decision-maker framework by Payne, Bettman and Johnson (1993). Utility theory is a part of the normative model of decision-making where uncertainty and trade-offs between alternatives are present.

Options B, C and D are strategies for the adaptive decision-maker framework.

Explanation:
Choice B is the accurate response because Tversky and Kahneman focused on the limits of rational thinking. Their investigation of intuitive judgments eventually led to identifying different cognitive biases explaining why people may not always make rational decisions.

Tversky and Kahneman focused on something other than working memory, their findings' links to behavioural economics were accidental, and the dual-process model of thinking and decision-making was initially credited to Stanovich and West (2000).

Explanation:
Encoding is the initial process of learning and perceiving external stimuli and information. The other choices refer to the other stages of the memory processes following encoding.

Explanation:
Anchoring bias occurs when an individual relies too heavily on the first piece of information they receive when making a decision. In this case, the seller's initial asking price serves as an anchor point, which can influence the individual's estimate of the watch's value. This can lead to the individual paying more than the actual value of the watch or missing out on a good deal if the initial asking price is too high.

Explanation:

The notion of cognitive biases was introduced by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972.

Cognitive biases are systematic deviations from rational thinking/clear judgments. Heuristics lead to cognitive biases.

Explanation:
Compared to the other choices, semantic memory, which holds general knowledge and concepts, tends to be more stable and resistant to decay compared to episodic memory, which can fade with time. Procedural memory involves skills, and implicit memory is often influenced by context and priming.

Explanation:
The phonological loop is responsible for holding and manipulating auditory information. It is divided into two subcomponents - the phonological store, which stores auditory information, and the articulatory loop, which allows for the rehearsal and manipulation of this information. The central executive coordinates and integrates information from the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, while the sensory register briefly stores sensory information from the environment. The visuospatial sketchpad is responsible for holding and manipulating visual and spatial information. The sensory register is not a component of this model.

Explanation:

The serial position effect is the tendency to recall the first and last items on a list better than the items in the middle section. This was introduced by Glanzer and Cunitz in 1966.

Participants remembering the first items better is called the primacy effect, and remembering the end of the list of items better is called the recency effect.

Explanation:

Choice A can be considered the correct answer as there is evidence from research that emotionally arousing events lead to the activation of the amygdala, which helps in better memory of the event.

Choices B, C and D do not outline the amygdala’s role in processing flashbulb memories.

Explanation:
Schemas play a significant role in decision-making processes. They help individuals quickly process information and make judgments based on their pre-existing knowledge and expectations.

The other choices are not directly linked to schemas.

Explanation:
Choice C is the correct option. It is believed that if memory encoding is constructive, then logically, memory recall must be reconstructive.

It is not a passive process automatically recording events but an active process influeced by existing beliefs and schemas.

Therefore, options A, B, and D are not accurate.

Elizabeth Loftus and other scholars have extensively researched and documented the reconstructive quality of memory.

Explanation:
Choice D is correct. The research of Brown & Kulik (1977) focused on testing whether dramatic and personally-significant events may lead to flashbulb memories. To do this, they administered surveys gathering self-reports of the participants' recollections of the events which may be a methodological problem since no controls were accounted for verification of the self-reported memories.

Explanation:

The statement ‘behaviour is the product of physiology’ is not a principle of cognitive approach. It is a principle of the biological approach.

Options A, B and C are all principles of the cognitive approach.