Explanation​:

Power distance is the extent to which people accept unequal distributions of power. In a high power distance culture, the boss makes all the important decisions, and employees accept the total authority of their superiors. In a low power distance culture, decisions are made more collaboratively, and all employees expect some say in how things are done.

Masculinity describes the importance given to achievement and striving for success.

Explanation​:

The process of studying cultures from an outside perspective looking in is known as the etic approach. A process in which cultural practices and beliefs are outside the culture.

It is the opposite of the emic approach, which focuses on understanding the culture from within/being a part of the culture closely.

Explanation​:
Answer choice D is correct. Social Identity Theory focuses on how individuals derive identities and self-esteem from the groups they belong to. It does not attempt to describe personal identity formation (option B) or inter- or intra-group dynamics (option C).

Answer choice A describes Social Cognitive Theory.

Explanation​:

In Social Cognitive Theory, the reproduction of a task is primarily affected by self-efficacy. The accurate reproduction of a task is dependent on high/low self-efficacy in an individual.

There are four primary sources of self-efficacy which are the following: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and emotional & physical states.

Explanation​:

The gatekeeper theory is a psychology and communication theory related to who controls access to information and ideas in a social group. It is a group of people who decide/control what information has to be shared with the people.

Option A explains comparative studies, option B focuses on cultural transmission, and option C defines culture.

Explanation​:
Answer choice D references the minimal group paradigm created by Henri Tajfel, who created Social Identity Theory. In one of his famous studies, Tajfel (1970), two groups of boys were told that they ended up in the same group because they all liked the same artwork, when in reality, they were randomly allocated to each group. Although this shared identity was actually based on an arbitrary (random) assigned trait, the boys could still derive social identities and self-esteem from belonging to that group.

Explanation​:
Choices A, B, and D are each included in Berry's acculturation model.

The missing strategy is assimilation, which involves creating a positive relationship with the new culture, but failing to maintain a connection with the original culture.

Explanation​:

Community (A) is an example of secondary socialisation.

Secondary socialisation is becoming part of a larger social group like a community or neighbourhood. These factors influence behaviour in the later age groups by affecting the primary factors.

Socialisation is the process of becoming a member of a social group. These factors tend to influence adherence to/deviance from societal norms indirectly. They play a role in forming individual beliefs, behaviour and identities.

Options B, C and D are examples of primary socialisation.

Explanation​:

Hofstede conducted his research by mailing an extensive survey about workplace values to 117,000 IBM employees in 50 countries. Hofstede carried out his research using a questionnaire called the Values Survey Module. From the results, he created his cultural dimensions, which reflect the national cultural characteristics of a country.

Litvin, S. W., Crotts, J. C., & Hefner, F. (2004). Cross-cultural tourist behaviour: a replication and extension involving Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance dimension. International Journal of Tourism Research, 6(1), 29–37.https<nolink>://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.468

Explanation​:
Choice A mentions a primary culture; acculturation only describes adapting to a secondary or tertiary culture.

Acculturative stress can occur with all four of Berry’s acculturation strategies, even integration – though integration is indeed associated with lower acculturative stress. This means we can eliminate choice C.

Choice D mentions gaining protective factors, which reduce acculturative stress.

Explanation​:
Stereotypes are often characterized as negative, but they can be positive as well. While stereotypes can be passed down within groups as a part of adopting the norms of that group, they are not considered values. Instead, stereotypes are better thought of as beliefs.

Explanation​:
Choice A outlines acculturation, and choice B outlines Social Cognitive Theory. Enculturation is not a model itself, and it is not accurate to suggest that the end result is $\text{‘}$similarity$\text{’}$ to parents. This leaves choice B, which does accurately outline enculturation.

Explanation​:
Positive distinctiveness describes what groups seek to establish for themselves: the ability to say that their group is different (i.e., distinct) and in positive ways compared to an out-group. Finding specific and positive differences requires a direct comparison between groups, so social comparison and positive distinctiveness are most closely related.

Explanation​:

When people can/do unconsciously change their behaviour, causing the schema to become true, it is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

A & B are ways in which stereotypes are formed in people. In contrast, D is an effect of stereotypes.

Explanation​:
Unlike choice C, both B and D are related to enculturation. However, vertical transmission could consist of both direct and indirect methods of teaching culture. One such indirect method through the understanding of Social Cognitive Theory, which describes how children could learn cultural norms by watching models experience reinforcement or consequences.

Explanation​:
Answer choice A involves long-term orientation, a cultural dimension. This answer relates a feature of culture to its effect on behavior and outlines the findings of Chen et al. (2005).

Choice B mentions an in-group, which is not synonymous with a cultural group. This outlines the findings of Abrams et al. (1990), a study on Social Identity Theory.

Choice C outlines how confirmation bias is related to the effect of stereotypes.

Choice D outlines one finding of Bandura (1961) and does not present an effect of culture on behavior.

Explanation​:
Choice A explains assimilation accurately, as defined in Berry's Acculturation Model.

Choices B, C, and D explain separation, marginalization, and integration, respectively.

Explanation​:

The OCEAN model stands for openness, conscientiousness - extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

The model was developed by MCrae and John in 1992 with a purpose to measure and compare personalities.

Explanation​:

The recent personal experience increases the accessibility of a schema due to recent events. This results in priming, which helps in remembering older memories/experiences.

For example, when someone talks about a particular social group/thing/experience, it will likely increase your accessibility to your schema about similar things.

Explanation​:
Choices A, C, and D each describe social groups usually created through social structures and systems. In some cases, membership in social groups is voluntary.

Choice B is the only option that describes a cultural group in which membership is often tied to geography, direct genealogy, and/or long-term participation in cultural customs and norms.

Explanation​:
Studies on culture and interpersonal relationships often rely on self-reporting questionnaires as $\text{‘}$happiness', $\text{‘}$cultural norms' and $\text{‘}$satisfaction' is subjective and cannot be accurately measured by a third party. It may also be that members of collectivistic cultures are less likely to share negative feelings regarding their marriage/relationships because of the fear of society.

Explanation​:
Arousal refers to the state of being physiologically alert or aware. Arousal is a biological factor that may play a role in the other cognitive factors listed – such as attention. However, it is not a cognitive factor on its own.

A, C, and D are cognitive factors that increase the likelihood that someone will learn from a model.

Choice A correctly states and explains this limitation.

Choice B is incorrect: much of the research has low internal validity because globalisation is a natural process that cannot be created in a lab.

Choice C incorrectly describes a limitation of cross-sectional research. Attrition, or the loss of participants over time, is a limitation of longitudinal research.

Research within a cultural group can be transferred or generalised to that population or similar populations. It is inaccurate to say that this type of research is never generalisable (choice D).

Explanation​:
Protective factors reduce acculturative stress. Sharing similar values with family members can promote greater support and unity within the household (choice A), and sufficient income also reduces stress (choice C).

Bilingualism is considered a protective factor as it widens the social support network available to individuals (choice B).

A strong preference for only speaking English predicts high acculturative stress, as language preferences may also reveal the extent to which individuals may want to limit their relationship with their primary culture. The lowest levels of acculturative stress tend to occur for individuals who integrate, i.e., those who maintain positive relationships with both cultures.

Collectivist cultures emphasise the needs and goals of the group as a whole over the needs and desires of each individual. Choice A describes individualist cultures, as the immediate family becomes the priority. In collectivist cultures, relationships with other members of the group and the interconnectedness between people, play a central role in forming our identity.