Explanation:

Community (A) is an example of secondary socialisation.

Secondary socialisation is becoming part of a larger social group like a community or neighbourhood. These factors influence behaviour in the later age groups by affecting the primary factors.

Socialisation is the process of becoming a member of a social group. These factors tend to influence adherence to/deviance from societal norms indirectly. They play a role in forming individual beliefs, behaviour and identities.

Options B, C and D are examples of primary socialisation.

Explanation:
Cultural dimensions allow us to describe and discuss differences across cultures (choice C). Because cultural dimensions were created by surveying workplaces in each country, a country’s scores represent the dominant professional culture and do not represent differences within that culture (choice B). Cultural dimensions may shift due to environmental changes, but a cultural dimension score does not give us any information about how it may have changed over time (choice D).

Choice A needs to be more specific to describe cultural dimensions comprehensively.

Explanation:
Answer choice C is the only option that does not accurately categorize globalization. Some countries have been able to disproportionately influence global values due to the historical power they have held in the international sphere, such as the United States.

Answer choice C best describes exactly what Social Cognitive Theory explains.

Choices A and B are critiques of Social Cognitive Theory.
Choice D falls outside of the scope of what Social Cognitive Theory seeks to explain.

Explanation:
Choice A outlines acculturation, and choice B outlines Social Cognitive Theory. Enculturation is not a model itself, and it is not accurate to suggest that the end result is $\text{‘}$similarity$\text{’}$ to parents. This leaves choice B, which does accurately outline enculturation.

Explanation:
The acculturation model proposed by Berry (1992) could also be used to explain potential outcomes of interactions between local and global cultures, as seen in studies like Norasakkunkit and Uchida (2014). They propose that marginalization – as described by answer choice B – can explain some social isolation syndromes that occur around the world, such as hikikomori in Japan.

Explanation:
Arousal refers to the state of being physiologically alert or aware. Arousal is a biological factor that may play a role in the other cognitive factors listed – such as attention. However, it is not a cognitive factor on its own.

A, C, and D are cognitive factors that increase the likelihood that someone will learn from a model.

Collectivist cultures emphasise the needs and goals of the group as a whole over the needs and desires of each individual. Choice A describes individualist cultures, as the immediate family becomes the priority. In collectivist cultures, relationships with other members of the group and the interconnectedness between people, play a central role in forming our identity.

Explanation:
Choice A mentions a primary culture; acculturation only describes adapting to a secondary or tertiary culture.

Acculturative stress can occur with all four of Berry’s acculturation strategies, even integration – though integration is indeed associated with lower acculturative stress. This means we can eliminate choice C.

Choice D mentions gaining protective factors, which reduce acculturative stress.

Explanation:
Choices A, B, and C each outline a different dimension than the one stated.

Choice A outlines power distance index.
Choice B outlines long-term vs short-term orientation.
Choice C outlines indulgence vs restraint.
Choice D is the only correct pairing.

Explanation:
Choices A, C, and D each describe social groups usually created through social structures and systems. In some cases, membership in social groups is voluntary.

Choice B is the only option that describes a cultural group in which membership is often tied to geography, direct genealogy, and/or long-term participation in cultural customs and norms.

Explanation:
Choice A explains assimilation accurately, as defined in Berry's Acculturation Model.

Choices B, C, and D explain separation, marginalization, and integration, respectively.

Explanation:
Vicarious reinforcement describes the ability to learn from observing the outcomes of others' behaviors - not just our own. In other words, if we see a behavior receive positive feedback or praise, we are more likely to imitate that behavior. If we watch someone receive a negative consequence or punishment for a behavior, we are less likely to imitate that behavior.

Option D is the only answer choice that demonstrates:

• A modeled behavior.
• A positive or negative consequence.
• A similar behavior demonstrated by the observer.

Option A does not reflect an applied good or bad consequence experienced by the teacher.

Options B and C describe direct reinforcement: the employee and the toddler received the consequences themselves.

Explanation:
Answer choice D is correct. Social Identity Theory focuses on how individuals derive identities and self-esteem from the groups they belong to. It does not attempt to describe personal identity formation (option B) or inter- or intra-group dynamics (option C).

Answer choice A describes Social Cognitive Theory.

Explanation:

The OCEAN model stands for openness, conscientiousness - extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

The model was developed by MCrae and John in 1992 with a purpose to measure and compare personalities.

Explanation:
In the context of Social Identity Theory, salience describes being aware of an identity or group membership. It is fundamental because we must be aware of similarities and differences to engage in categorization and comparison, which leads to positive distinctiveness. In other words, none of the other mechanisms of Social Identity Theory can take place without first being aware of similarities and differences to form groups around.

Explanation:
Choices A, B, and D are each included in Berry's acculturation model.

The missing strategy is assimilation, which involves creating a positive relationship with the new culture, but failing to maintain a connection with the original culture.

Explanation:

Hofstede conducted his research by mailing an extensive survey about workplace values to 117,000 IBM employees in 50 countries. Hofstede carried out his research using a questionnaire called the Values Survey Module. From the results, he created his cultural dimensions, which reflect the national cultural characteristics of a country.

Litvin, S. W., Crotts, J. C., & Hefner, F. (2004). Cross-cultural tourist behaviour: a replication and extension involving Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance dimension. International Journal of Tourism Research, 6(1), 29–37.https<nolink>://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.468

Choice A correctly states and explains this limitation.

Choice B is incorrect: much of the research has low internal validity because globalisation is a natural process that cannot be created in a lab.

Choice C incorrectly describes a limitation of cross-sectional research. Attrition, or the loss of participants over time, is a limitation of longitudinal research.

Research within a cultural group can be transferred or generalised to that population or similar populations. It is inaccurate to say that this type of research is never generalisable (choice D).

Explanation:
Protective factors reduce acculturative stress. Sharing similar values with family members can promote greater support and unity within the household (choice A), and sufficient income also reduces stress (choice C).

Bilingualism is considered a protective factor as it widens the social support network available to individuals (choice B).

A strong preference for only speaking English predicts high acculturative stress, as language preferences may also reveal the extent to which individuals may want to limit their relationship with their primary culture. The lowest levels of acculturative stress tend to occur for individuals who integrate, i.e., those who maintain positive relationships with both cultures.

Explanation:
Answer choice A involves long-term orientation, a cultural dimension. This answer relates a feature of culture to its effect on behavior and outlines the findings of Chen et al. (2005).

Choice B mentions an in-group, which is not synonymous with a cultural group. This outlines the findings of Abrams et al. (1990), a study on Social Identity Theory.

Choice C outlines how confirmation bias is related to the effect of stereotypes.

Choice D outlines one finding of Bandura (1961) and does not present an effect of culture on behavior.

Explanation:
Answer choice D references the minimal group paradigm created by Henri Tajfel, who created Social Identity Theory. In one of his famous studies, Tajfel (1970), two groups of boys were told that they ended up in the same group because they all liked the same artwork, when in reality, they were randomly allocated to each group. Although this shared identity was actually based on an arbitrary (random) assigned trait, the boys could still derive social identities and self-esteem from belonging to that group.

Explanation:

In Social Cognitive Theory, the reproduction of a task is primarily affected by self-efficacy. The accurate reproduction of a task is dependent on high/low self-efficacy in an individual.

There are four primary sources of self-efficacy which are the following: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and emotional & physical states.

Explanation:
Ecological fallacies are made when we take data gathered on a group and assume that each individual must embody those traits equally (choice A). For example, we would be committing an ecological fallacy if we assume that because someone is American, they must be highly individualistic.

While stereotypes do assume groups are homogenous and generalize traits, stereotypes do not need to be based on any empirical data at all (choice C)

Choice B explains population validity, and choice D explains ecological validity.

Explanation:

The process of studying cultures from an outside perspective looking in is known as the etic approach. A process in which cultural practices and beliefs are outside the culture.

It is the opposite of the emic approach, which focuses on understanding the culture from within/being a part of the culture closely.