Explanation​:
Unlike choice C, both B and D are related to enculturation. However, vertical transmission could consist of both direct and indirect methods of teaching culture. One such indirect method through the understanding of Social Cognitive Theory, which describes how children could learn cultural norms by watching models experience reinforcement or consequences.

Explanation​:

Vertical collectivism is when group members merge with the ingroup and submit to an authority in that ingroup.

Option A focuses on social identity theory, C is horizontal individualism and D is horizontal collectivism.

Explanation​:
Stereotypes are often characterized as negative, but they can be positive as well. While stereotypes can be passed down within groups as a part of adopting the norms of that group, they are not considered values. Instead, stereotypes are better thought of as beliefs.

Explanation​:
Positive distinctiveness describes what groups seek to establish for themselves: the ability to say that their group is different (i.e., distinct) and in positive ways compared to an out-group. Finding specific and positive differences requires a direct comparison between groups, so social comparison and positive distinctiveness are most closely related.

Explanation​:
Choices A, B, and D are each included in Berry's acculturation model.

The missing strategy is assimilation, which involves creating a positive relationship with the new culture, but failing to maintain a connection with the original culture.

Explanation​:
An individual within a cultural group may not consistently follow cultural norms for various reasons. These could be environmentally driven – that is, an individual behaves differently in a workplace with a different dominant culture compared to when they are home. In addition, if an individual is experiencing acculturation, their values may begin to encompass those of the new culture. Neither of these situations inherently means an individual no longer belongs to their cultural group.

Explanation​:

Hofstede conducted his research by mailing an extensive survey about workplace values to 117,000 IBM employees in 50 countries. Hofstede carried out his research using a questionnaire called the Values Survey Module. From the results, he created his cultural dimensions, which reflect the national cultural characteristics of a country.

Litvin, S. W., Crotts, J. C., & Hefner, F. (2004). Cross-cultural tourist behaviour: a replication and extension involving Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance dimension. International Journal of Tourism Research, 6(1), 29–37.https<nolink>://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.468

Explanation​:

Power distance is the extent to which people accept unequal distributions of power. In a high power distance culture, the boss makes all the important decisions, and employees accept the total authority of their superiors. In a low power distance culture, decisions are made more collaboratively, and all employees expect some say in how things are done.

Masculinity describes the importance given to achievement and striving for success.

Explanation​:
Answer choice D is correct. Social Identity Theory focuses on how individuals derive identities and self-esteem from the groups they belong to. It does not attempt to describe personal identity formation (option B) or inter- or intra-group dynamics (option C).

Answer choice A describes Social Cognitive Theory.

Explanation​:
Answer choice A involves long-term orientation, a cultural dimension. This answer relates a feature of culture to its effect on behavior and outlines the findings of Chen et al. (2005).

Choice B mentions an in-group, which is not synonymous with a cultural group. This outlines the findings of Abrams et al. (1990), a study on Social Identity Theory.

Choice C outlines how confirmation bias is related to the effect of stereotypes.

Choice D outlines one finding of Bandura (1961) and does not present an effect of culture on behavior.

Explanation​:

Community (A) is an example of secondary socialisation.

Secondary socialisation is becoming part of a larger social group like a community or neighbourhood. These factors influence behaviour in the later age groups by affecting the primary factors.

Socialisation is the process of becoming a member of a social group. These factors tend to influence adherence to/deviance from societal norms indirectly. They play a role in forming individual beliefs, behaviour and identities.

Options B, C and D are examples of primary socialisation.

Explanation​:
Studies on culture and interpersonal relationships often rely on self-reporting questionnaires as $\text{‘}$happiness', $\text{‘}$cultural norms' and $\text{‘}$satisfaction' is subjective and cannot be accurately measured by a third party. It may also be that members of collectivistic cultures are less likely to share negative feelings regarding their marriage/relationships because of the fear of society.

Explanation​:

When people can/do unconsciously change their behaviour, causing the schema to become true, it is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

A & B are ways in which stereotypes are formed in people. In contrast, D is an effect of stereotypes.

Explanation​:
Enculturation takes place whether or not caregivers or parents being enculturated are explicitly aware of exactly what they are enculturating. For example, in Fagot (1978), parents believed that they were demonstrating gender-neutral behaviors with children during play, but researchers observed that there were differences in what behaviors were praised and discouraged according to the child’s gender.

Enculturation describes acquiring the norms and values of a first or primary culture (answer choices B and C). Acculturation is the term that describes adapting to additional, new cultural environments.

Enculturation can occur through models in media, or through direct instruction in settings like school. This means answer choice D also describes enculturation.

Explanation​:

The OCEAN model stands for openness, conscientiousness - extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

The model was developed by MCrae and John in 1992 with a purpose to measure and compare personalities.

Explanation​:
The acculturation model proposed by Berry (1992) could also be used to explain potential outcomes of interactions between local and global cultures, as seen in studies like Norasakkunkit and Uchida (2014). They propose that marginalization – as described by answer choice B – can explain some social isolation syndromes that occur around the world, such as hikikomori in Japan.

Explanation​:
Answer choice D references the minimal group paradigm created by Henri Tajfel, who created Social Identity Theory. In one of his famous studies, Tajfel (1970), two groups of boys were told that they ended up in the same group because they all liked the same artwork, when in reality, they were randomly allocated to each group. Although this shared identity was actually based on an arbitrary (random) assigned trait, the boys could still derive social identities and self-esteem from belonging to that group.

Explanation​:
Answer choice C is the only option that does not accurately categorize globalization. Some countries have been able to disproportionately influence global values due to the historical power they have held in the international sphere, such as the United States.

Explanation​:
Illusory correlations are a cognitive bias, in which we tend to see relationships when they do not exist. We may create stereotypes when we see relationships between groups and traits that we hear other people discuss, see on the news, and so on.

Answer choice B is the grain of truth hypothesis. This theory of stereotype formation requires direct experience with a member of a group that serves as a basis for the stereotype.

Answer choice C describes confirmation bias, and choice D describes out-group homogeneity.

Explanation​:

The gatekeeper theory is a psychology and communication theory related to who controls access to information and ideas in a social group. It is a group of people who decide/control what information has to be shared with the people.

Option A explains comparative studies, option B focuses on cultural transmission, and option C defines culture.

Explanation​:

Chen found that participants primed with stimuli related to the American culture, were more likely to pay extra for the immediate shipping, while those primed with Singaporean culture were more likely to opt for the free shipping. Thus meaning, B is the correct statement.

Explanation​:
Vicarious reinforcement describes the ability to learn from observing the outcomes of others' behaviors - not just our own. In other words, if we see a behavior receive positive feedback or praise, we are more likely to imitate that behavior. If we watch someone receive a negative consequence or punishment for a behavior, we are less likely to imitate that behavior.

Option D is the only answer choice that demonstrates:

• A modeled behavior.
• A positive or negative consequence.
• A similar behavior demonstrated by the observer.

Option A does not reflect an applied good or bad consequence experienced by the teacher.

Options B and C describe direct reinforcement: the employee and the toddler received the consequences themselves.

Explanation​:
Choice A explains assimilation accurately, as defined in Berry's Acculturation Model.

Choices B, C, and D explain separation, marginalization, and integration, respectively.

Explanation​:

The cultural dimensions assume that all people within a country share the same values. In fact, there is a great deal of variation within a culture; on average, British and American cultures may be more individualistic than the Japanese collectivist culture. However, there may be some Americans who are more collective in their outlook, and there may be some Japanese who are more individualistic.

Explanation​:
Choice A outlines acculturation, and choice B outlines Social Cognitive Theory. Enculturation is not a model itself, and it is not accurate to suggest that the end result is $\text{‘}$similarity$\text{’}$ to parents. This leaves choice B, which does accurately outline enculturation.