Explanation​:
In the research by Antonova et al. in 2011, scopolamine (antagonist) blocks acetylcholine receptor sites. The research aimed to determine how blocking the acetylcholine receptors with scopolamine affects spatial memory.

The results showed that when participants were injected with scopolamine, they demonstrated a reduction in hippocampus activation compared to when they received a placebo.

Choice A (Ketanserin) is a 5-HT2 receptor antagonist, is a drug used clinically as an antihypertensive agent and in scientific research to study the serotonergic system. Liechti et al. (2000) research focuses on this antagonist.

Choice C (Psilocybin) is an agonist associated with antidepressant effects. Vollenweider et al (1998) research focuses on this agonist.

Choice D (Alcohol) is an agonist of GABA receptors. The body creates GABA from glutamate with the help of certain enzymes. Setiawan et al. (2013) have researched this agonist (the neurotransmitter affected is dopamine) focusing on mood changes.

Explanation​:
Synaptogenesis is an explosion of synaptic formation between neurons during early brain development. The brain experiences a lot of growth during infancy. This period of synaptogenesis plays an essential role in learning, memory formation. Active synapses are strengthened, and less active synapses are weakened. The process of removing the irrelevant/pruned synapses is referred to as synaptic pruning.

Explanation​:
Hormones are chemical messengers released directly into the bloodstream by endocrine glands: adrenal glands, hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pancreas, testes, and ovaries. These form the endocrine system.

Oxytocin is responsible for social bonding, affects trust in interpersonal interactions, and is referred to as the $\text{‘}$bonding hormone$\text{’}$ and $\text{‘}$love hormone$\text{’}$. It also helps to establish a strong bond between a mother and a child.

Explanation​:
Serotonin is a neurotransmitter responsible for regulating essential bodily functions, including mood, sleep, and learning and memory processes. It acts as a chemical messenger and passes messages from the brain to the rest of the body. Serotonin deficiency can result in depressive symptoms and anxiety in people.

Explanation​:
Twin studies aim to explore the interplay between genetics and the environment in shaping traits or behaviours. Researchers can discern the impact of genetics and environment on individual differences by comparing similarities between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins. Kinship studies extend this investigation to non-twin relatives, investigating how traits vary across degrees of relatedness. These studies provide valuable insights into the complex interactions between genes and the environment in shaping human development and behaviour.

Explanation​:
Cushing's syndrome is a medical condition that occurs when the body is exposed to high cortisol levels for an extended period. This can be because the body is making too much cortisol or because of oral corticosteroid medicines.

Cushing's syndrome symptoms can include feeling emotional and tired, a rounded face, high blood pressure, and excess weight around the shoulders and neck.

Explanation​:
Twin studies are small in sample size and rare due to the uniqueness of their target group. It becomes difficult to collect samples depending on the aim of the research. Twin studies are on monozygotic or dizygotic twins or both. This results in issues with the replication of similar studies.

Options A, B and C are strengths of twin studies.

Explanation​:

The modern theory of evolution is based on the following premise:

• organisms are driven by the need to survive and reproduce
• organisms having different traits are adapted to their environment to varying degrees, or what is called differential fitness
• organisms that adapt well to environmental changes have a higher chance of survival

Explanation​:

In neurological diseases, axons can regenerate or sprout in an attempt to reconnect with the target neuron and restore synapse function.

A is for synaptic plasticity, C is for synaptic pruning and D is about cortical remapping

Explanation​:

Answer A is correct. The behaviour the dogs exhibited after being repeatedly shocked showed they stopped trying to escape due to the shocks, thereby learning that they were helpless in that particular situation.

Explanation​:
Split-brain studies represent research on brain lateralisation which is the division of functions between the two hemispheres of the cortex. Lateralization is a particular case of localization. Roger Sperry conducted initial animal research to understand this phenomenon.

Explanation​:
EEG - Electroencephalography measures the electric potentials generated by the neural circuits; neurons here interact with each other by sending electrical impulses. In this method, electrodes are attached to the scalp and pick up the changes in the electric potential of the scalp areas. EEG has a perfect temporal resolution and can detect changes in brain activity within milliseconds. Because of this, it outperforms techniques such as fMRI.

Explanation​:
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are drugs that act as agonists/antagonists. SSRIs selectively inhibit or block the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin from the synaptic gap, increasing serotonin concentration in the synapse. SSRIs allow serotonin to build up between neurons so messages are sent correctly.

Explanation​:

A, B and D are functions of the MRI and fMRI.

The difference between the MRI and fMRI is C, the ability to produce a video representation of brain activity over time, which a normal MRI cannot do.

MRI scans use magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images.

Explanation​:
The nervous system comprises neurons consisting of soma, dendrites, and axons. A synapse or synaptic gap is the space between two neurons. An action potential is a process in which one neuron sends a message to the other neurons through an axon. An action potential is an all-or-none phenomenon. When it reaches the end of the axon, a neurotransmitter is released in the synaptic gap from the axon terminals.

Explanation​:
The 5-HTT or serotonin receptors are found in the central or peripheral nervous system. 5-HTT stands for 5-hydroxytryptamine. Serotonin receptors affect many processes, such as memory, sleep, appetite, aggression, and anxiety. A study done by Caspi et al. in the year 2003 shows depression was also linked to a particular gene—the serotonin transporter gene 5-HTT.

Explanation​:
The amygdala is responsible for directing automatic or unconscious responses to emotional stimuli. It also plays a crucial role in linking sensory inputs with long-term memory in the cerebral cortex.

Additionally, the amygdala, together with the hippocampus, are both involved in emotion and cognition as they are central to processing emotion in relation to cognitive processes such as memory.

Explanation​:

The biological approach in understanding human behaviour emphasises the role of genetics and other physiological factors in influencing personality and behaviour. Answers A, B, and C do not have this emphasis.

Explanation​:

Choice A is incorrect because the researchers did the study with a clear and scientific purpose.

Choice B Is correct because the physical wellbeing of the monkeys was not taken into consideration, and thus resulted in harm and death to the animals.

Choice C is incorrect because the text does not make mention of the monkeys being acquired illegally or against regulation.

Choice D is incorrect because the study did not use the monkeys in a classroom or educational setting.

Explanation​:
Behavior results from genetic factors and natural selection. The evolutionary explanation of behaviour explains that certain behaviours have lasted over many generations (i.e. survival tendency) and, as a result, have been encoded in the genes of organisms. They are subject to natural selection.

MRI scans use magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images. All metal objects and clothing on the body have to be removed before lying in the MRI machine. This is a disadvantage of the technique, as people with metallic implants cannot use this technique.

Explanation​:
Regulation of gene expression results in epigenetic changes, which mean deviation of phenotypes from the genetic code in the DNA sequence. Epigenetic changes can be attributed to environmental factors explaining how nurture influences nature in certain situations. Epigenetic changes can affect the growth of neurons in a baby’s developing brain and brain activity in adults. They result in a change of behaviour in individuals.

Explanation​:

Answer A is incorrect because nonhuman animals can still be used for research and experimentation.

Answer B is incorrect because the experimenter and researcher need to have the appropriate licensure.

Answer C is incorrect because nonhuman animals can be used in a variety of settings and research methodologies.

Answer D is correct because all experimentation and research must comply with APA guidelines for ethical animal research.

Explanation​:

The evolutionary approach, using Charles Darwin’s concepts of evolution and adaptation, suggests that our ability to adapt to new situations and environments directly results from evolution.

Answer A is incorrect because humanistic psychology emphasises achieving a person’s holistic growth in terms of love, fulfilment, and self-worth.

Answer B is incorrect because the Freudian concept of psychoanalytic psychology emphasises the influence of the unconscious and childhood experiences on behaviour and personality.

Answer D is incorrect because the biopsychosocial perspective suggests that physical and mental health is affected by biology, psychology, and social stressors.