Explanation​:
Arousal refers to the state of being physiologically alert or aware. Arousal is a biological factor that may play a role in the other cognitive factors listed – such as attention. However, it is not a cognitive factor on its own.

A, C, and D are cognitive factors that increase the likelihood that someone will learn from a model.

The negative acculturation effect refers to the diminishing difference between migrants and their native-born counterparts over time. It is the opposite of the healthy migrant effect (C), which suggests that recent migrants tend to be healthier than their native-born counterparts.

Option A represents separation, and B is for marginalisation.

Explanation​:
Protective factors reduce acculturative stress. Sharing similar values with family members can promote greater support and unity within the household (choice A), and sufficient income also reduces stress (choice C).

Bilingualism is considered a protective factor as it widens the social support network available to individuals (choice B).

A strong preference for only speaking English predicts high acculturative stress, as language preferences may also reveal the extent to which individuals may want to limit their relationship with their primary culture. The lowest levels of acculturative stress tend to occur for individuals who integrate, i.e., those who maintain positive relationships with both cultures.

Collectivist cultures emphasise the needs and goals of the group as a whole over the needs and desires of each individual. Choice A describes individualist cultures, as the immediate family becomes the priority. In collectivist cultures, relationships with other members of the group and the interconnectedness between people, play a central role in forming our identity.

Explanation​:
Vicarious reinforcement describes the ability to learn from observing the outcomes of others' behaviors - not just our own. In other words, if we see a behavior receive positive feedback or praise, we are more likely to imitate that behavior. If we watch someone receive a negative consequence or punishment for a behavior, we are less likely to imitate that behavior.

Option D is the only answer choice that demonstrates:

• A modeled behavior.
• A positive or negative consequence.
• A similar behavior demonstrated by the observer.

Option A does not reflect an applied good or bad consequence experienced by the teacher.

Options B and C describe direct reinforcement: the employee and the toddler received the consequences themselves.

Explanation​:

Hofstede conducted his research by mailing an extensive survey about workplace values to 117,000 IBM employees in 50 countries. Hofstede carried out his research using a questionnaire called the Values Survey Module. From the results, he created his cultural dimensions, which reflect the national cultural characteristics of a country.

Litvin, S. W., Crotts, J. C., & Hefner, F. (2004). Cross-cultural tourist behaviour: a replication and extension involving Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance dimension. International Journal of Tourism Research, 6(1), 29–37.https<nolink>://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.468

Explanation​:
Choices A, B, and C each outline a different dimension than the one stated.

Choice A outlines power distance index.
Choice B outlines long-term vs short-term orientation.
Choice C outlines indulgence vs restraint.
Choice D is the only correct pairing.

Explanation​:
Answer choice D is correct. Social Identity Theory focuses on how individuals derive identities and self-esteem from the groups they belong to. It does not attempt to describe personal identity formation (option B) or inter- or intra-group dynamics (option C).

Answer choice A describes Social Cognitive Theory.

Explanation​:
Choice A mentions a primary culture; acculturation only describes adapting to a secondary or tertiary culture.

Acculturative stress can occur with all four of Berry’s acculturation strategies, even integration – though integration is indeed associated with lower acculturative stress. This means we can eliminate choice C.

Choice D mentions gaining protective factors, which reduce acculturative stress.

Explanation​:

The gatekeeper theory is a psychology and communication theory related to who controls access to information and ideas in a social group. It is a group of people who decide/control what information has to be shared with the people.

Option A explains comparative studies, option B focuses on cultural transmission, and option C defines culture.

Explanation​:

The process of studying cultures from an outside perspective looking in is known as the etic approach. A process in which cultural practices and beliefs are outside the culture.

It is the opposite of the emic approach, which focuses on understanding the culture from within/being a part of the culture closely.

Explanation​:
Cultural dimensions allow us to describe and discuss differences across cultures (choice C). Because cultural dimensions were created by surveying workplaces in each country, a country’s scores represent the dominant professional culture and do not represent differences within that culture (choice B). Cultural dimensions may shift due to environmental changes, but a cultural dimension score does not give us any information about how it may have changed over time (choice D).

Choice A needs to be more specific to describe cultural dimensions comprehensively.

Explanation​:

The cultural dimensions assume that all people within a country share the same values. In fact, there is a great deal of variation within a culture; on average, British and American cultures may be more individualistic than the Japanese collectivist culture. However, there may be some Americans who are more collective in their outlook, and there may be some Japanese who are more individualistic.

Explanation​:
Stereotypes are often characterized as negative, but they can be positive as well. While stereotypes can be passed down within groups as a part of adopting the norms of that group, they are not considered values. Instead, stereotypes are better thought of as beliefs.

Explanation​:
Answer choice C is the only option that does not accurately categorize globalization. Some countries have been able to disproportionately influence global values due to the historical power they have held in the international sphere, such as the United States.

Answer choice C best describes exactly what Social Cognitive Theory explains.

Choices A and B are critiques of Social Cognitive Theory.
Choice D falls outside of the scope of what Social Cognitive Theory seeks to explain.

Explanation​:
Ecological fallacies are made when we take data gathered on a group and assume that each individual must embody those traits equally (choice A). For example, we would be committing an ecological fallacy if we assume that because someone is American, they must be highly individualistic.

While stereotypes do assume groups are homogenous and generalize traits, stereotypes do not need to be based on any empirical data at all (choice C)

Choice B explains population validity, and choice D explains ecological validity.

Explanation​:
Answer choice D references the minimal group paradigm created by Henri Tajfel, who created Social Identity Theory. In one of his famous studies, Tajfel (1970), two groups of boys were told that they ended up in the same group because they all liked the same artwork, when in reality, they were randomly allocated to each group. Although this shared identity was actually based on an arbitrary (random) assigned trait, the boys could still derive social identities and self-esteem from belonging to that group.

Explanation​:
Illusory correlations are a cognitive bias, in which we tend to see relationships when they do not exist. We may create stereotypes when we see relationships between groups and traits that we hear other people discuss, see on the news, and so on.

Answer choice B is the grain of truth hypothesis. This theory of stereotype formation requires direct experience with a member of a group that serves as a basis for the stereotype.

Answer choice C describes confirmation bias, and choice D describes out-group homogeneity.

Explanation​:

The OCEAN model stands for openness, conscientiousness - extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism.

The model was developed by MCrae and John in 1992 with a purpose to measure and compare personalities.

Explanation​:
In the context of Social Identity Theory, salience describes being aware of an identity or group membership. It is fundamental because we must be aware of similarities and differences to engage in categorization and comparison, which leads to positive distinctiveness. In other words, none of the other mechanisms of Social Identity Theory can take place without first being aware of similarities and differences to form groups around.

Explanation​:
Studies on culture and interpersonal relationships often rely on self-reporting questionnaires as $\text{‘}$happiness', $\text{‘}$cultural norms' and $\text{‘}$satisfaction' is subjective and cannot be accurately measured by a third party. It may also be that members of collectivistic cultures are less likely to share negative feelings regarding their marriage/relationships because of the fear of society.

Explanation​:

Chen found that participants primed with stimuli related to the American culture, were more likely to pay extra for the immediate shipping, while those primed with Singaporean culture were more likely to opt for the free shipping. Thus meaning, B is the correct statement.

Explanation​:
Unlike choice C, both B and D are related to enculturation. However, vertical transmission could consist of both direct and indirect methods of teaching culture. One such indirect method through the understanding of Social Cognitive Theory, which describes how children could learn cultural norms by watching models experience reinforcement or consequences.

Explanation​:

Community (A) is an example of secondary socialisation.

Secondary socialisation is becoming part of a larger social group like a community or neighbourhood. These factors influence behaviour in the later age groups by affecting the primary factors.

Socialisation is the process of becoming a member of a social group. These factors tend to influence adherence to/deviance from societal norms indirectly. They play a role in forming individual beliefs, behaviour and identities.

Options B, C and D are examples of primary socialisation.