Explanation​:
Illusory correlations are a cognitive bias, in which we tend to see relationships when they do not exist. We may create stereotypes when we see relationships between groups and traits that we hear other people discuss, see on the news, and so on.

Answer choice B is the grain of truth hypothesis. This theory of stereotype formation requires direct experience with a member of a group that serves as a basis for the stereotype.

Answer choice C describes confirmation bias, and choice D describes out-group homogeneity.

Explanation​:
Choices A, B, and C each outline a different dimension than the one stated.

Choice A outlines power distance index.
Choice B outlines long-term vs short-term orientation.
Choice C outlines indulgence vs restraint.
Choice D is the only correct pairing.

Explanation​:
Choices A, C, and D each describe social groups usually created through social structures and systems. In some cases, membership in social groups is voluntary.

Choice B is the only option that describes a cultural group in which membership is often tied to geography, direct genealogy, and/or long-term participation in cultural customs and norms.

Explanation​:

The idea that people only learn through reinforcement is not an assumption of the sociocultural approach.

Options A, B and C represent the assumptions of the sociocultural approach.

Explanation​:
The concept of culture involves norms, values, attitudes, and beliefs that are common (answer choice A). This is called deep culture, which one could only infer after observing surface culture behaviors (answer choice D).

Answer choice B and C contradict each other. Nearly all definitions of culture describe the ability of cultures to change in response to environmental shifts, such as globalization. This means answer choice C is the only option that does not accurately describe culture.

Explanation​:
Unlike choice C, both B and D are related to enculturation. However, vertical transmission could consist of both direct and indirect methods of teaching culture. One such indirect method through the understanding of Social Cognitive Theory, which describes how children could learn cultural norms by watching models experience reinforcement or consequences.

Explanation​:
Vicarious reinforcement describes the ability to learn from observing the outcomes of others' behaviors - not just our own. In other words, if we see a behavior receive positive feedback or praise, we are more likely to imitate that behavior. If we watch someone receive a negative consequence or punishment for a behavior, we are less likely to imitate that behavior.

Option D is the only answer choice that demonstrates:

• A modeled behavior.
• A positive or negative consequence.
• A similar behavior demonstrated by the observer.

Option A does not reflect an applied good or bad consequence experienced by the teacher.

Options B and C describe direct reinforcement: the employee and the toddler received the consequences themselves.

Explanation​:
Arousal refers to the state of being physiologically alert or aware. Arousal is a biological factor that may play a role in the other cognitive factors listed – such as attention. However, it is not a cognitive factor on its own.

A, C, and D are cognitive factors that increase the likelihood that someone will learn from a model.

Answer choice C best describes exactly what Social Cognitive Theory explains.

Choices A and B are critiques of Social Cognitive Theory.
Choice D falls outside of the scope of what Social Cognitive Theory seeks to explain.

Explanation​:
Choice A explains assimilation accurately, as defined in Berry's Acculturation Model.

Choices B, C, and D explain separation, marginalization, and integration, respectively.

Explanation​:

The recent personal experience increases the accessibility of a schema due to recent events. This results in priming, which helps in remembering older memories/experiences.

For example, when someone talks about a particular social group/thing/experience, it will likely increase your accessibility to your schema about similar things.

Explanation​:

The gatekeeper theory is a psychology and communication theory related to who controls access to information and ideas in a social group. It is a group of people who decide/control what information has to be shared with the people.

Option A explains comparative studies, option B focuses on cultural transmission, and option C defines culture.

Explanation​:
Choice A mentions a primary culture; acculturation only describes adapting to a secondary or tertiary culture.

Acculturative stress can occur with all four of Berry’s acculturation strategies, even integration – though integration is indeed associated with lower acculturative stress. This means we can eliminate choice C.

Choice D mentions gaining protective factors, which reduce acculturative stress.

Explanation​:

When people can/do unconsciously change their behaviour, causing the schema to become true, it is known as a self-fulfilling prophecy.

A & B are ways in which stereotypes are formed in people. In contrast, D is an effect of stereotypes.

Explanation​:

Vertical collectivism is when group members merge with the ingroup and submit to an authority in that ingroup.

Option A focuses on social identity theory, C is horizontal individualism and D is horizontal collectivism.

Explanation​:

The process of studying cultures from an outside perspective looking in is known as the etic approach. A process in which cultural practices and beliefs are outside the culture.

It is the opposite of the emic approach, which focuses on understanding the culture from within/being a part of the culture closely.

Explanation​:

Hofstede conducted his research by mailing an extensive survey about workplace values to 117,000 IBM employees in 50 countries. Hofstede carried out his research using a questionnaire called the Values Survey Module. From the results, he created his cultural dimensions, which reflect the national cultural characteristics of a country.

Litvin, S. W., Crotts, J. C., & Hefner, F. (2004). Cross-cultural tourist behaviour: a replication and extension involving Hofstede’s uncertainty avoidance dimension. International Journal of Tourism Research, 6(1), 29–37.https<nolink>://doi.org/10.1002/jtr.468

Explanation​:
An individual within a cultural group may not consistently follow cultural norms for various reasons. These could be environmentally driven – that is, an individual behaves differently in a workplace with a different dominant culture compared to when they are home. In addition, if an individual is experiencing acculturation, their values may begin to encompass those of the new culture. Neither of these situations inherently means an individual no longer belongs to their cultural group.

Explanation​:

In Social Cognitive Theory, the reproduction of a task is primarily affected by self-efficacy. The accurate reproduction of a task is dependent on high/low self-efficacy in an individual.

There are four primary sources of self-efficacy which are the following: mastery experiences, vicarious experiences, social persuasion, and emotional & physical states.

Explanation​:
The acculturation model proposed by Berry (1992) could also be used to explain potential outcomes of interactions between local and global cultures, as seen in studies like Norasakkunkit and Uchida (2014). They propose that marginalization – as described by answer choice B – can explain some social isolation syndromes that occur around the world, such as hikikomori in Japan.

Explanation​:
Enculturation takes place whether or not caregivers or parents being enculturated are explicitly aware of exactly what they are enculturating. For example, in Fagot (1978), parents believed that they were demonstrating gender-neutral behaviors with children during play, but researchers observed that there were differences in what behaviors were praised and discouraged according to the child’s gender.

Enculturation describes acquiring the norms and values of a first or primary culture (answer choices B and C). Acculturation is the term that describes adapting to additional, new cultural environments.

Enculturation can occur through models in media, or through direct instruction in settings like school. This means answer choice D also describes enculturation.

Explanation​:
Stereotypes are often characterized as negative, but they can be positive as well. While stereotypes can be passed down within groups as a part of adopting the norms of that group, they are not considered values. Instead, stereotypes are better thought of as beliefs.

Collectivist cultures emphasise the needs and goals of the group as a whole over the needs and desires of each individual. Choice A describes individualist cultures, as the immediate family becomes the priority. In collectivist cultures, relationships with other members of the group and the interconnectedness between people, play a central role in forming our identity.

Explanation​:
Choices A, B, and D are each included in Berry's acculturation model.

The missing strategy is assimilation, which involves creating a positive relationship with the new culture, but failing to maintain a connection with the original culture.

The negative acculturation effect refers to the diminishing difference between migrants and their native-born counterparts over time. It is the opposite of the healthy migrant effect (C), which suggests that recent migrants tend to be healthier than their native-born counterparts.

Option A represents separation, and B is for marginalisation.