Explanation​:

An action potential, also called a nerve impulse, is an electrical charge that travels along the membrane of a neuron. It can be generated when chemical signals change a neuron’s membrane potential from a nearby cell. A, neurotransmission is the transfer of information between neurons. B, synaptic reuptake refers to the reabsorption of neurotransmitter molecules by the presynaptic neuron that released them and C, a receptor site, is the space on the cell that houses the receptor.

Explanation​:
Behavior results from genetic factors and natural selection. The evolutionary explanation of behaviour explains that certain behaviours have lasted over many generations (i.e. survival tendency) and, as a result, have been encoded in the genes of organisms. They are subject to natural selection.

Explanation​:
De Dreu et al. (2010) have discovered that oxytocin, also called the love hormone, can lead humans to sacrifice themselves for the sake of their in-group members. Individuals were likely to self-sacrifice for the benefit of their in-group in a competition against the out-group.

The results showed that oxytocin was linked to in-group trust and cooperation, and aggression towards the members of the out-group.

De Dreu, C. K. W., Greer, L. L., Handgraaf, M. J. J., Shalvi, S., Van Kleef, G. A., Baas, M., Velden, F. S. T., Van Dijk, E., & Feith, S. W. W. (2010). The neuropeptide oxytocin regulates parochial altruism in intergroup conflict among humans. Science, 328(5984), 1408-1411. https<nolink>://doi.org/10.1126/science.1189047

Explanation​:

A transporter protein is a protein at a synapse that recognises neurotransmitter molecules and collects them to transport them somewhere (often back to the presynaptic neuron) where they can be degraded, recycled, or re-used. A, describes the process of neurotransmission, C, is the axon terminal and D, is the crossing of the synapse during neurotransmission.

Explanation​:

Answer A is correct. The studies on the baby rhesus monkeys showed emotional distress after being taken away from their mother after bonding and being kept in isolation. Answers B, C, and D were not raised as ethical concerns for Harlow’s study.

Explanation​:
Phenotype is the set of traits that manifest in an individual's body, appearance, or behaviour. The set of traits as coded in an individual's DNA is called a genotype.

Phenotype comprises observable characteristics (eye colour, height) and unobservable characteristics (blood type, immune system). Genotype is the plan, and phenotype is the implementation of the plan.

Explanation​:
Twin studies are small in sample size and rare due to the uniqueness of their target group. It becomes difficult to collect samples depending on the aim of the research. Twin studies are on monozygotic or dizygotic twins or both. This results in issues with the replication of similar studies.

Options A, B and C are strengths of twin studies.

Explanation​:
The 5-HTT or serotonin receptors are found in the central or peripheral nervous system. 5-HTT stands for 5-hydroxytryptamine. Serotonin receptors affect many processes, such as memory, sleep, appetite, aggression, and anxiety. A study done by Caspi et al. in the year 2003 shows depression was also linked to a particular gene—the serotonin transporter gene 5-HTT.

Explanation​:
The study done by Maguire et al. (2000) used an MRI scan to study the changes in the brain of taxi drivers in London.

They selected 16 taxi drivers and 50 non-taxi drivers for the study and scanned the brains of all the participants using the MRI. With the help of the MRI scan, they found that the posterior hippocampus was more prominent in taxi drivers compared to non-taxi drivers. The hippocampus is often associated with spatial memory - the ability to remember directions and places.

Explanation​:
Split-brain studies represent research on brain lateralisation which is the division of functions between the two hemispheres of the cortex. Lateralization is a particular case of localization. Roger Sperry conducted initial animal research to understand this phenomenon.

Explanation​:
EEG - Electroencephalography measures the electric potentials generated by the neural circuits; neurons here interact with each other by sending electrical impulses. In this method, electrodes are attached to the scalp and pick up the changes in the electric potential of the scalp areas. EEG has a perfect temporal resolution and can detect changes in brain activity within milliseconds. Because of this, it outperforms techniques such as fMRI.

Explanation​:

Choice A is incorrect because the researchers did the study with a clear and scientific purpose.

Choice B Is correct because the physical wellbeing of the monkeys was not taken into consideration, and thus resulted in harm and death to the animals.

Choice C is incorrect because the text does not make mention of the monkeys being acquired illegally or against regulation.

Choice D is incorrect because the study did not use the monkeys in a classroom or educational setting.

Explanation​:
Synaptogenesis is an explosion of synaptic formation between neurons during early brain development. The brain experiences a lot of growth during infancy. This period of synaptogenesis plays an essential role in learning, memory formation. Active synapses are strengthened, and less active synapses are weakened. The process of removing the irrelevant/pruned synapses is referred to as synaptic pruning.

Explanation​:

Monetary funding (D) is not explicitly stated within the APA guidelines regarding animal research. Answers A, B, and C are stated and expounded upon

Explanation​:
Twin studies aim to explore the interplay between genetics and the environment in shaping traits or behaviours. Researchers can discern the impact of genetics and environment on individual differences by comparing similarities between identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic) twins. Kinship studies extend this investigation to non-twin relatives, investigating how traits vary across degrees of relatedness. These studies provide valuable insights into the complex interactions between genes and the environment in shaping human development and behaviour.

Explanation​:
SSRIs (selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors) are drugs that act as agonists/antagonists. SSRIs selectively inhibit or block the reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin from the synaptic gap, increasing serotonin concentration in the synapse. SSRIs allow serotonin to build up between neurons so messages are sent correctly.

Explanation​:

The evolutionary approach, using Charles Darwin’s concepts of evolution and adaptation, suggests that our ability to adapt to new situations and environments directly results from evolution.

Answer A is incorrect because humanistic psychology emphasises achieving a person’s holistic growth in terms of love, fulfilment, and self-worth.

Answer B is incorrect because the Freudian concept of psychoanalytic psychology emphasises the influence of the unconscious and childhood experiences on behaviour and personality.

Answer D is incorrect because the biopsychosocial perspective suggests that physical and mental health is affected by biology, psychology, and social stressors.

Explanation​:
Pheromones are chemical messengers used for communication among the same species. There is evidence for the existence of pheromones, and there is evidence that shows that pheromones don’t affect behaviour.

A few common critical evaluation points found in the research done for pheromones are - population validity, construct validity, ethics, demand characteristics as most research is for a self-selected sample, lack of internal validity due to the effect of extraneous variables, replicability because the nature of human behaviour is constantly changing.

Explanation​:
Leptin is a hormone that travels from the fat cells to the brain indicating that enough food has been consumed and energy burning can happen at a normal rate.

When an individual is suffering from obesity, their bodies become resistant and no longer receive the message that their body has had enough food.

Explanation​:
Neural pruning refers to the process by which the brain selectively eliminates unnecessary neural connections. During neural pruning, weaker or underutilized connections are eliminated, while stronger and more relevant connections are strengthened. This improves the overall functioning of the brain and neural communication.

MRI scans use magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images. All metal objects and clothing on the body have to be removed before lying in the MRI machine. This is a disadvantage of the technique, as people with metallic implants cannot use this technique.

Explanation​:

The modern theory of evolution is based on the following premise:

• organisms are driven by the need to survive and reproduce
• organisms having different traits are adapted to their environment to varying degrees, or what is called differential fitness
• organisms that adapt well to environmental changes have a higher chance of survival

Explanation​:

The biological approach in understanding human behaviour emphasises the role of genetics and other physiological factors in influencing personality and behaviour. Answers A, B, and C do not have this emphasis.

Explanation​:

Stress hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol released after an event activates the amygdala often linked to the formation of flashbulb memories.

Choices B, C and A are hormones but are not related to the amygdala.

Explanation​:

A, B and D are functions of the MRI and fMRI.

The difference between the MRI and fMRI is C, the ability to produce a video representation of brain activity over time, which a normal MRI cannot do.

MRI scans use magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images.