Explanation​:

Answer C is correct because the study mainly focused on the heritability of intelligence and the influence of upbringing.

Answers A, B, and D are incorrect because the study did not specifically focus on birth order, cultural factors, or physical health outcomes.

Explanation​:

In neurological diseases, axons can regenerate or sprout in an attempt to reconnect with the target neuron and restore synapse function.

A is for synaptic plasticity, C is for synaptic pruning and D is about cortical remapping

Explanation​:
Synaptogenesis is an explosion of synaptic formation between neurons during early brain development. The brain experiences a lot of growth during infancy. This period of synaptogenesis plays an essential role in learning, memory formation. Active synapses are strengthened, and less active synapses are weakened. The process of removing the irrelevant/pruned synapses is referred to as synaptic pruning.

Explanation​:
De Dreu et al. (2010) have discovered that oxytocin, also called the love hormone, can lead humans to sacrifice themselves for the sake of their in-group members. Individuals were likely to self-sacrifice for the benefit of their in-group in a competition against the out-group.

The results showed that oxytocin was linked to in-group trust and cooperation, and aggression towards the members of the out-group.

De Dreu, C. K. W., Greer, L. L., Handgraaf, M. J. J., Shalvi, S., Van Kleef, G. A., Baas, M., Velden, F. S. T., Van Dijk, E., & Feith, S. W. W. (2010). The neuropeptide oxytocin regulates parochial altruism in intergroup conflict among humans. Science, 328(5984), 1408-1411. https<nolink>://doi.org/10.1126/science.1189047

Explanation​:

Answer A is correct. The behaviour the dogs exhibited after being repeatedly shocked showed they stopped trying to escape due to the shocks, thereby learning that they were helpless in that particular situation.

Explanation​:
Studying animal models refer to using animals in research to test a cause-effect hypothesis about a specific human behaviour—for example, understanding stress models, separation models, and medical models. They allow researchers to test hypotheses and explore interventions in a controlled and ethical manner.

Popular species commonly subjected to psychological research are rats, mice, pigeons, cats, rabbits, hamsters, dogs, chimpanzees, and baboons.

Explanation​:

Answer C is correct. The study of genetic adaptations of behaviours and other psychological traits is a focus of evolutionary psychology.

Answers A, B, and D do not focus on genetics, evolution, or adaptation.

Explanation​:
Cushing's syndrome is a medical condition that occurs when the body is exposed to high cortisol levels for an extended period. This can be because the body is making too much cortisol or because of oral corticosteroid medicines.

Cushing's syndrome symptoms can include feeling emotional and tired, a rounded face, high blood pressure, and excess weight around the shoulders and neck.

Explanation​:
Behavior results from genetic factors and natural selection. The evolutionary explanation of behaviour explains that certain behaviours have lasted over many generations (i.e. survival tendency) and, as a result, have been encoded in the genes of organisms. They are subject to natural selection.

Explanation​:
Antagonists counteract neurotransmitters and prevent a signal from being passed further. It decreases the activation of a synaptic receptor by blocking the neurotransmitters from binding/bonding. An example of an antagonist is scopolamine, which affects the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine (ACh).

Explanation​:
Pheromones are chemical messengers used for communication among the same species. There is evidence for the existence of pheromones, and there is evidence that shows that pheromones don’t affect behaviour.

A few common critical evaluation points found in the research done for pheromones are - population validity, construct validity, ethics, demand characteristics as most research is for a self-selected sample, lack of internal validity due to the effect of extraneous variables, replicability because the nature of human behaviour is constantly changing.

Explanation​:
The limbic system is an older subcortical structure of the brain. It is commonly called the “emotional brain” and includes several parts like the thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala, and hippocampus. It is located on both sides of the thalamus, beneath the medial temporal lobe of the cerebrum.

It supports various functions such as emotion, behaviour and long-term memory.

Explanation​:

Monetary funding (D) is not explicitly stated within the APA guidelines regarding animal research. Answers A, B, and C are stated and expounded upon

Explanation​:
Neural pruning refers to the process by which the brain selectively eliminates unnecessary neural connections. During neural pruning, weaker or underutilized connections are eliminated, while stronger and more relevant connections are strengthened. This improves the overall functioning of the brain and neural communication.

Explanation​:

Choice A is incorrect because the researchers did the study with a clear and scientific purpose.

Choice B Is correct because the physical wellbeing of the monkeys was not taken into consideration, and thus resulted in harm and death to the animals.

Choice C is incorrect because the text does not make mention of the monkeys being acquired illegally or against regulation.

Choice D is incorrect because the study did not use the monkeys in a classroom or educational setting.

Explanation​:

Answer A is correct. The studies on the baby rhesus monkeys showed emotional distress after being taken away from their mother after bonding and being kept in isolation. Answers B, C, and D were not raised as ethical concerns for Harlow’s study.

Explanation​:
The amygdala is responsible for directing automatic or unconscious responses to emotional stimuli. It also plays a crucial role in linking sensory inputs with long-term memory in the cerebral cortex.

Additionally, the amygdala, together with the hippocampus, are both involved in emotion and cognition as they are central to processing emotion in relation to cognitive processes such as memory.

Explanation​:
Cortical remapping, or cortical reorganization, is the ability of one part of the brain area to assume the functions of another part of the brain in case of an injury.

Cortical remapping is explained in the research by Merzenich et al. (1984) on eight adult owl monkeys. The middle finger of the monkey was amputated, and remapping was observed in 62 days. Adjacent areas from other fingers spread and occupied the parts of the unused area / amputated area.

Explanation​:

Choice A is correct because fraternal twins only share 50% of their genes, and identical twins share 100%. Due to this, researchers can study the differences and similarities in personality, intellect, and behaviour.

Choices B, C, and D are incorrect because they do not address the nature aspect of the nature vs. nurture debate in twin studies.

Explanation​:
Hormones are chemical messengers released directly into the bloodstream by endocrine glands: adrenal glands, hypothalamus, pineal gland, pituitary gland, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, pancreas, testes, and ovaries. These form the endocrine system.

Oxytocin is responsible for social bonding, affects trust in interpersonal interactions, and is referred to as the $\text{‘}$bonding hormone$\text{’}$ and $\text{‘}$love hormone$\text{’}$. It also helps to establish a strong bond between a mother and a child.

MRI scans use magnetic fields and radio waves to produce 3D computer-generated images. All metal objects and clothing on the body have to be removed before lying in the MRI machine. This is a disadvantage of the technique, as people with metallic implants cannot use this technique.

Explanation​:
Regulation of gene expression results in epigenetic changes, which mean deviation of phenotypes from the genetic code in the DNA sequence. Epigenetic changes can be attributed to environmental factors explaining how nurture influences nature in certain situations. Epigenetic changes can affect the growth of neurons in a baby’s developing brain and brain activity in adults. They result in a change of behaviour in individuals.

Explanation​:
The nervous system comprises neurons consisting of soma, dendrites, and axons. A synapse or synaptic gap is the space between two neurons. An action potential is a process in which one neuron sends a message to the other neurons through an axon. An action potential is an all-or-none phenomenon. When it reaches the end of the axon, a neurotransmitter is released in the synaptic gap from the axon terminals.

Explanation​:
In the research by Antonova et al. in 2011, scopolamine (antagonist) blocks acetylcholine receptor sites. The research aimed to determine how blocking the acetylcholine receptors with scopolamine affects spatial memory.

The results showed that when participants were injected with scopolamine, they demonstrated a reduction in hippocampus activation compared to when they received a placebo.

Choice A (Ketanserin) is a 5-HT2 receptor antagonist, is a drug used clinically as an antihypertensive agent and in scientific research to study the serotonergic system. Liechti et al. (2000) research focuses on this antagonist.

Choice C (Psilocybin) is an agonist associated with antidepressant effects. Vollenweider et al (1998) research focuses on this agonist.

Choice D (Alcohol) is an agonist of GABA receptors. The body creates GABA from glutamate with the help of certain enzymes. Setiawan et al. (2013) have researched this agonist (the neurotransmitter affected is dopamine) focusing on mood changes.