Explanation​:
The availability heuristic can be influenced by various factors, including exposure to advertising, news, media, and family upbringing. If someone has experienced a particular event firsthand, they may overestimate the chances of it happening again. Similarly, if certain events receive a lot of media coverage, they may seem more significant and thus be seen as more likely to occur. Finally, information that is easy to recall may be given more weight in decision-making, even if it is not necessarily the most accurate or representative information.

Explanation​:
Loftus' (1997) study found that a significant portion of the participants, recalled a false memory of being lost in a shopping mall as if it was an actual experience. This was done by implanting false memories of being lost in the mall by means of suggestion and confabulation, through the interviews done with the participants.

Explanation​:
The Dual Process Model distinguishes between automatic and controlled thinking styles, known as intuitive and rational thinking. The ideas of rational and intuitive thinking were developed by Daniel Kahneman, along with his research partner Amos Tversky (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974).

They explored the distinction between these two modes of thinking and their implications for decision-making and judgment under uncertainty. Their groundbreaking work laid the foundation for understanding the cognitive processes involved in rational and intuitive thinking.

Explanation​:
A, B, and D are common criticisms of the schema theory, except for C. Schemas often guide our understanding and interpretation of emotions. Schemas also influence how we perceive, process, and respond to emotional stimuli and events.

Schema theory also effectively explains emotions by highlighting how specific schemas can elicit the same emotions experienced during their formation. For instance, an individual who got into a physical accident (e.g. falling down the stairs) may feel fear every time they see or use the stairs due to the activation of their schema of the experience.

Explanation​:
The correct answer is C. Sensory memory usually lasts a fraction of a second. If we ignore a piece of sensory information, we will not notice it; therefore, we will not be able to remember it. When we pay attention to specific environmental stimuli, they are processed by our sensory memory and transferred to our short-term memory. Attention is essential in the transfer of information from sensory memory to short-term memory. Once information is in our short-term memory, we can rehearse and store it in our long-term memory for future retrieval.

Explanation​:

When processing a stimuli, Le Doux hypothesised that humans go through a sequence of stages in either of the two pathways - slow pathway and fast pathway, depending on the severity of the issue presented.

All other options are not linked to the hypothesis of Le Doux’s theory of the emotional brain.

Explanation​:
Controlled thinking, associated with System 2, involves effortful and consciously monitored cognitive processes, such as making decisions in uncertain situations.

Explanation​:
Controlled thinking, associated with System 2, involves effortful and consciously monitored cognitive processes, such as making decisions in uncertain situations.

Explanation​:
System 1 thinking, also known as intuitive thinking, is fast, automatic, effortless, associative, implicit, and emotionally charged. For example, automatically swerving to avoid an obstacle while driving.

Explanation​:
Choice C is the correct option. It is believed that if memory encoding is constructive, then logically, memory recall must be reconstructive.

It is not a passive process automatically recording events but an active process influeced by existing beliefs and schemas.

Therefore, options A, B, and D are not accurate.

Elizabeth Loftus and other scholars have extensively researched and documented the reconstructive quality of memory.

Explanation​:

The serial position effect is the tendency to recall the first and last items on a list better than the items in the middle section. This was introduced by Glanzer and Cunitz in 1966.

Participants remembering the first items better is called the primacy effect, and remembering the end of the list of items better is called the recency effect.

Explanation​:
The amygdala is responsible for directing automatic or unconscious responses to emotional stimuli. It also plays a crucial role in linking sensory inputs with long-term memory in the cerebral cortex.

Additionally, the amygdala, together with the hippocampus, are both involved in emotion and cognition as they are central to processing emotion in relation to cognitive processes such as memory.

Explanation​:

A flashbulb memory is a vivid and detailed memory of an emotionally significant event, often accompanied by a strong sense of clarity and accuracy. It is also called a snapshot of a particular moment/memory.

Explanation​:
Choice B is the accurate response because Tversky and Kahneman focused on the limits of rational thinking. Their investigation of intuitive judgments eventually led to identifying different cognitive biases explaining why people may not always make rational decisions.

Tversky and Kahneman focused on something other than working memory, their findings' links to behavioural economics were accidental, and the dual-process model of thinking and decision-making was initially credited to Stanovich and West (2000).

Explanation​:

Loftus and Palmer’s study supported the notion of reconstructive memory. They found that the participants showed response bias and memory change.

Response bias is an estimation of a higher intensity verb for higher speed (a participant assuming the speed is 70km/hr for the word smashed versus 30km/hr speed for the verb contacted).

Memory change is caused by the leading questions in the study (e.g. when the participant hears the verb smashed, the accident is seen as more severe compared to when the verb contacted is used).

Explanation​:

Flashbulb memories are defined as extremely vivid, detailed recollections of a surprising and emotional event. The event must exceed the critical level of surprise to be categorised as a flashbulb memory. There is also a level of personal significance that one attaches to the event.

Explanation​:
Choices B, C, and D are not limitations of the MSMM (multi-store memory model).

Many studies, such as Glanzer and Cunitz (1966) & Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968), have supported MSMM. Applications of the model have been studied and replicated since the model is not complicated and is applicable in many situations. However, due to the experimental and artificial nature of the research on MSMM, it is often criticised for its lack of ecological validity and limited elaboration of the complexities of memory, thus making Choice A the correct answer.

$\text{Atkinson, R. C., \& Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes.}$
$\text{In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 89-195). https://doi.org/10.1016/s0079-7421(08)60422-3}$

$\text{Glanzer, M., \& Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall.}$ $\text{Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5(4), 351-360. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0022-5371(66)80044-0}$

Explanation​:
According to Piaget's schema theory, accommodation involves modifying existing cognitive structures or schemas to accommodate new information that does not fit existing frameworks. Choice B accurately represents this process. When a child observes a ball falling at different speeds, it challenges their previous understanding of gravity. To make sense of this new information, the child modifies or adjusts their schema of gravity to accurately incorporate the observation.
Choice A describes the process of assimilation, where the child applies existing knowledge (dogs) to categorize a horse, albeit inaccurately.
Choice C represents assimilation rather than accommodation since the child incorporates new information (birds) into an existing schema (flying animals) without significantly modifying the schema.
Choice D does not relate to the process of accommodation but is more focused on repetition or rehearsal.

Explanation​:
Choice D is correct. The research of Brown & Kulik (1977) focused on testing whether dramatic and personally-significant events may lead to flashbulb memories. To do this, they administered surveys gathering self-reports of the participants' recollections of the events which may be a methodological problem since no controls were accounted for verification of the self-reported memories.

Explanation​:

Choice A can be considered the correct answer as there is evidence from research that emotionally arousing events lead to the activation of the amygdala, which helps in better memory of the event.

Choices B, C and D do not outline the amygdala’s role in processing flashbulb memories.

Explanation​:
Compared to the other choices, semantic memory, which holds general knowledge and concepts, tends to be more stable and resistant to decay compared to episodic memory, which can fade with time. Procedural memory involves skills, and implicit memory is often influenced by context and priming.

Explanation​:

The notion of cognitive biases was introduced by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1972.

Cognitive biases are systematic deviations from rational thinking/clear judgments. Heuristics lead to cognitive biases.

Explanation​:
The availability heuristic can be influenced by various factors, including exposure to advertising, news, media, and family upbringing. If someone has experienced a particular event firsthand, they may overestimate the chances of it happening again. Similarly, if certain events receive a lot of media coverage, they may seem more significant and thus be seen as more likely to occur. Finally, information that is easy to recall may be given more weight in decision-making, even if it is not necessarily the most accurate or representative information.

Explanation​:
Cognitive schemas are mental structures or frameworks of knowledge and beliefs that help organise and interpret incoming information from the environment. These schemas are not innate or genetically determined (Choice A) but are acquired through experiences and learning. They are not automatic and unconscious mental processes (Choice B) but conscious cognitive frameworks that guide our thinking and perception of the world.

Choice C correctly describes cognitive schemas as frameworks that organise and interpret information. These schemas influence how we perceive, process, and remember information, shaping our expectations, judgments, and interpretations of new experiences.

Choice D is incorrect because cognitive schemas are not strategies for improving memory and problem-solving skills. While cognitive strategies can enhance cognitive processes, cognitive schemas refer to mental structures rather than specific methods or techniques to improve cognitive functioning.

Explanation​:
The phonological loop is responsible for holding and manipulating auditory information. It is divided into two subcomponents - the phonological store, which stores auditory information, and the articulatory loop, which allows for the rehearsal and manipulation of this information. The central executive coordinates and integrates information from the phonological loop and the visuospatial sketchpad, while the sensory register briefly stores sensory information from the environment. The visuospatial sketchpad is responsible for holding and manipulating visual and spatial information. The sensory register is not a component of this model.